the origins of contemporary france-5-第97节

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and　sent　to　all　the　prefects　。　。　。　。　The　councils　were　obliged　to

meet；　which　generously　disposed　of　other　people's　children；　and　very

worthy　persons；　myself　first　of　all；　thought　that　they　might　join　in

this　shameful　purpose；　to　such　an　extent　had　imperial　fanaticism

fascinated　them　and　perverted　consciences！〃



＇45＇　Archives　nationales　（state　of　accounts　of　the　prefects　and

reports　of　the　general　police　commissioners；　F7；　5014　and　following

records。　…　Reports　of　senators　on　their　senatoreries；　AF；　IV。；　1051；

and　following　records）。　…　These　papers　disclose　at　different　dates　the

state　of　minds　and　of　things　in　the　provinces。　Of　all　these　reports；

that　of　Roederer　on　the　senatorerie　of　Caen　is　the　most　instructive；

and　gives　the　most　details　on　the　three　departments　composing　it。

（Printed　in　his　〃？uvres　complètes；〃　vol。　III。）



＇46＇　The　reader　will　find　in　the　Archives　nationales；　　the　fullest　and

most　precise　information　concerning　local　administration　and　the

sentiments　of　the　different　classes　of　society；　in　the　correspondence

of　the　prefects　of　the　first　Restoration；　of　the　hundred　days；　and　of

the　second　Restoration　from　1814　to　1823　（Cf。　especially　those　of

Haute…Garonne；　the　Rhine；　C？te　d'Or；　Ain；　Loiret；　Indre…et…Loire；

Indre；　Loire…Inférieure　and　Aisne。）　The　letters　of　several　prefects；

M。　de　Chabroe；　M。　de　Tocqueville；　M。　de　Remusat；　M。　de　Barante；　are

often　worth　publishing；　occasionally；　the　minister　of　the　interior　has

noted　with　a　pencil　in　the　margin；　〃　To　be　shown　to　the　King。〃



＇47＇　M。　de　Villèle；　ibid。；　I。；　248。



＇48＇　Rocquam；　〃l'état　de　la　France　au　18　Brumaire；〃　reports　of　the

councilors　of　state　sent　on　missions；　p。40。



＇49＇　De　Feville；　〃La　France　economique；〃　248　and　249。



＇50＇　Pelet　de　la　Lozère；　〃Opinions　de　Napoléon　au　conseil　d'Etat；〃　P。

277　（Session　of　March　15；　1806）。　…　Decree　of　March　16；　1806；　and　of

September　15；　1807。



＇51＇　Ibid。；　276。　〃To　those　who　objected　that　a　tax　could　only　be　made

according　to　law；　Napoleon　replied　that　it　was　not　a　tax；　since　there

were　no　other　taxes　than　those　which　the　law　established；　and　that

this　one　（the　extra　assessment　of　a　quarter　of　the　produce　of　timber）

was　established　by　decree。　It　is　only　a　master；　and　an　absolute

master；　who　could　reason　in　this　way。〃



＇52＇　Law　of　March　20；　1813。　　（Woods；　meadows；　and　pasture…grounds　used

by　the　population　in　common　are　excepted；　also　buildings　devoted　to

public　use；　promenades；　and　public　gardens。）　…　The　law　takes　rural

possessions；　houses　and　factories；　rented　and　producing　an　income。

Thiers；　XVI。；　279。　The　five　percents　at　this　time　were　worth　75

francs；　and　138　millions　of　these　gave　a　revenue　of　9　millions；　about

the　annual　income　derived　by　the　communes　from　their　confiscated　real

estate。



＇53＇　Aucoc；　ibid。；　§§　55　and　135。









CHAPTER　II。　Local　society　since　1830。



I。　Introduction　of　Universal　suffrage。



Local　society　since　1830。　…　Introduction　of　a　new　internal　motor。　…

Subordinate　to　the　external　motor。　…　Advantageous　under　the　system　of

universal　suffrage。



Neither　lips　nor　heart　are　capable　of　pronouncing　the　above

invigorating　and　conclusive　phrase　after　a　silence　of　30　years。　That

local　society　ought　to　be　a　private　association；　does　not　interest

those　who　are　concerned；　while　the　legislator　does　not　permit　it。

Indeed；　after　the　year　VIII　（1799）；　the　State　（Napoleon）　introduces

into　the　machine　the　new　motivation　described　above。　After　the

revolution　of　1830；＇1＇　the　municipal　and　general　councilors　become

elective　and　are　appointed　by　a　limited　suffrage；　after　the　revolution

of　1848；　they　are　elected　by　universal　suffrage。＇2＇　After　the

revolution　of　1870；＇3＇　each　municipal　council　elects　its　own　mayor；

while　the　council…general；　whose　powers　are　enlarged；　leaves　in　its

place；　during　its　vacations；　a　standing　committee　who　arrange　with；

and　govern　along　with；　the　prefect。　Here；　in　local　society；　is　a

superadded　internal　motor；　working　from　below；　whilst　the　first　one　is

external　and　works　from　above；　from　now　on；　both　are　to　work　together

and　in　accord。　…　But；　in　reality；　the　second　（the　council…general）

remains　subordinate；　moreover；　it　does　not　suit　the　machine＇4＇　and　the

machine　does　not　suit　it；　it　is　only　a　superfluity；　an　inconvenient

and　cumbersome　intruder；　nearly　always　useless；　and　often　mischievous。

Its　influence　is　feeble　and　of　little　effect；　too　many　brakes　are

attached　to　it；　its　force　diminishes　through　the　complexity　of　its

numerous　wheels；　it　fails　in　giving　action；　it　cannot　but　little　more

than　impede　or　moderate　other　impulses；　those　of　the　external　motor；

sometimes　as　it　should；　and　sometimes　the　contrary。　Most　frequently；

even　nowadays　（1889）；　it　is　of　no　efficiency　whatever。　Three…quarters

of　the　municipal　councils；　for　three…fourths　of　their　business；　hold

sessions　only　to　give　signatures。　Their　pretended　deliberations　are

simply　a　parade　formality；　the　incentive　and　direction　continue　to

come　from　without；　and　from　above；　under　the　third　Republic；　as　under

the　Restoration　and　the　first　Empire；　it　is　always　the　central　State

which　governs　the　local　society；　amid　all　the　wrangling　and　disputes；

in　spite　of　passing　conflicts　it　is；　and　remains；　the　initiator；

mover；　leader；　controller；　accountant；　and　executor　of　every

undertaking；　the　preponderating　power　in　the　department　as　well　as　in

the　commune；　and　with　what　deplorable　results　we　all　know。　…　There　is

still　another　and　more　serious　result。　Nowadays；　its　interference　is

an　advantage；　for　should　it　renounce　its　preponderance　this　would　pass

over　to　the　other　power　which；　since　this　has　become　vested　in　a

numerical　majority；　is　mere　blind　and　brutal　force；　abandoned　to

itself　and　without　any　counter…weight；　its　ascendancy　would　be

disastrous；　we　would　see　reappearing　along　with　the　blunders　of　1789；

the　outrages；　usurpations；　and　distress　of　1790；　1791　and　1792。＇5＇　…

In　any　event；　there　is　this　advantage　in　despotic　centralization；　that

it　still　preserves　us　from　democratic　autonomy。　In　the　present　state

of　institutions　and　minds；　the　former　system；　objectionable　as　it　may

be；　is　our　last　retreat　against　the　greater　evil　of　the　latter。



II。　Universal　suffrage。



Application　of　universal　suffrage　to　local　society。　…　Two　assessments

for　the　expenses　of　local　society。　…　The　fixed　amount　of　one　should　in

equity　be　equal　to　the　average　sum　of　the　other。　…　Practically；　the

sum　of　one　is　kept　too　low。　…　How　the　new　régime　provides　for　local

expenditure。　…　The　〃additional　centimes。〃　…　How　the　small　taxpayer　is

relieved　in　town　and　country。　…　His　quota　in　local　expenditure　reduced

to　the　minimum。　…　His　quota　of　local　benefits　remains　intact。　…　Hence

the　large　or　average　taxpayer　bears；　beside　his　own　burden；　that　of

the　relieved　small　taxpayer。　…　Number　of　those　relieved。　…　The　extra

burden　of　the　large　and　average　taxpayer　is　alms…giving。　…　The　relief

of　the　small　taxpayer　is　a　levy　of　alms。



In　effect；　direct　universal　suffrage；　counted　by　heads；　is　in　local

society　a　discordant　element；　a　monstrous　system；　to　which　it　is

adverse。　Constituted　as　this　is；　not　by　human　judgment；　but　by　the

preponderance　of　numbers　and　their　force；　its　mechanism　is　determined

beforehand；　it　excludes　certain　wheels　and　connections。＇6＇　That　is　why

the　legislator　must　write　laws　which　reflect　the　nature　of　our

existence；　or；　at　least；　translate　this　as　closely　as　he　can；　without

any　gross　contradiction。　Nature　herself　presents　him　with　ready…made

statutes。＇7＇　His　business　is　to　read　these　properly；　he　has　already

transcribed　the　apportionment　of　burdens；　he　can　now　transcribe　the

apportionment　of　rights。



So；　we　have　seen；　local　society　renders　two　distinct　services＇8＇；

which；　that　the　expenses　of　both　may　be　met；　require　two　distinct

assessments；　one　personal　and　the　other　real；　one　levied　on　everybody

and　of　which　the　amount　is　alike　for　all；　and　the　other　levied　only　on

those　whose　amount　is　based　on　what　he　spends；　on　the　importance　of

his　business；　and　on　the　income　from　his　real　estate。　…　In　strict

equity；　the　amount　of　the　former　should　be　equal　to　the　average　amount

of　the　latter；　in　effect；　as　has　been　shown；　the　services　defrayed　by

the　former　are　as　many；　as　diverse；　and　as　precious；　still　more　vital；

and　not　less　costly　than　those　of　which　the　latter　is　the　price。　Of

the　two　interests　which　they　represent；　each；　did　it　stand　alone；

would　be　obliged　to　secure　the　same　services；　to　take　upon　itself　the

whole　of　the　work；　neither　would　obtain　more　in　the　dividend；　and　each

would　have　to　pay　the　whole　of　the　expense。　Accordingly；　each　gains　as

much　as　the　other　in　the　physical　solidarity　which　binds　them

together。　Hence；　in　the　legal　bond　which　unites　them　they　enter　into

it　on　an　equal　footing；　on　condition　that　each　is　burdened　or　relived

as　much　as　the　other；　on　condition　that　if　the　latter　assumes　o