the origins of contemporary france-5-第36节

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humanity　in　which　society　consists　wholly　of　a　herd。　In　this　herd

there　is　no　distinct　association　in　view　of　a　distinct　purpose；　there

is　not　even　a　family　…　no　permanent　tie　between　male　and　female；　there

is　simply　a　contact　of　the　sexes。　Gradually；　in　this　herd　of

individuals；　all　equal　and　all　alike；　particular　groups　define

themselves；　take　shape；　and　separate：　we　see　appearing　more　and　more

precise　relationships；　more　and　more　distinct　habitations；　more　and

more　hereditary　homesteads；　fishing；　hunting；　and　war　groups；　and

small　workshops；　if　the　people　is　a　conquering　people；　castes

establish　themselves。　At　length；　we　find　in　this　expanded　and　solidly…

organized　social　body　provinces；　communes；　churches；　hospitals；

schools；　corporate　bodies　and　associations　of　every　species　and

dimension；　temporary　or　permanent；　voluntary　or　involuntary；　in　brief；

a　multitude　of　social　engines　constructed　out　of　human　beings　who；　on

account　of　personal　interest；　habit；　and　constraint；　or　through

inclination；　conscience；　and　generosity；　co…operate　according　to　a

public　or　tacit　statute　in　effecting　in　the　material　or　spiritual

order　of　things　this　or　that　determinate　undertaking。　In　France；　to…

day；　there　are；　besides　the　State；　eighty…six　departments；　thirty…six

thousand　communes；　four　church　bodies；　forty　thousand　parishes；　seven

or　eight　millions　of　families；　millions　of　agricultural；　industrial；

and　commercial　establishments；　hundreds　of　institutions　of　science　and

art；　thousands　of　educational　and　charitable　institutions；　benevolent

and　mutual…aid　societies；　and　others　for　business　or　for　pleasure　by

tens　and　hundreds　and　thousands；　in　short；　innumerable　associations　of

every　kind；　each　with　a　purpose　of　its　own；　and；　like　a　tool　or　a

special　organ；　carrying　out　a　distinct　work。



Now；　each　of　these　associations　so　far　as　it　is　a　tool　or　an　organ　is

subject　to　the　same　law；　the　better　it　is　in　one　direction；　the　more

mediocre　it　is　in　other　directions；　its　special　competency　constitutes

its　general　incompetence。　This　is　why；　among　developed　nations；　no

specialized　organization　can　replace　another　in　a　satisfactory　manner。

〃An　academy　of　painting　which　should　also　be　a　bank　would；　in　all

probability；　exhibit　very　bad　pictures　and　discount　very　bad　bills。　A

gas　company　which　should　also　be　a　kindergarten　would；　we　expect；

light　the　streets　poorly　and　teach　the　children　badly。〃　＇1＇　And　the

reason　is　that　an　instrument；　whatever　it　may　be；　a　mechanical　tool；

or　physiological　organ；　or　human　association；　is　always　a　system　of

pieces　whose　effects　converge　to　a　given　end；　it　matters　little

whether　the　pieces　are　bits　of　wood　and　metal；　as　in　the　tool；　cells

and　fibers；　as　in　the　organ；　souls　and　understandings；　as　in　the

association；　the　essential　thing　is　the　convergence　of　their　effects；

for　the　more　convergent　these　effects；　the　more　efficient　is　the

instrument　in　the　realization　of　its　end。　But；　through　this

convergence；　it　takes　one　direction　exclusively　and　cannot　take　any

other；　it　cannot　operate　at　once　in　two　different　senses；　it　cannot

possibly　turn　to　the　right　and　at　the　same　time　turn　to　the　left。　If

any　social　instrument　devised　for　a　special　service　is　made　to　act

additionally　for　another；　it　will　perform　its　own　office　badly　as　well

the　one　it　usurps。　Of　the　two　works　executed　by　it；　the　first　injures

the　second　and　the　second　injures　the　first　one。　The　end；　ordinarily；

is　the　sacrifice　of　one　to　the　other；　and；　most　frequently；　the

failure　of　both。



II。　Abusive　Government　Intervention。



Application　of　this　law　to　the　public　power。　…　General　effect　of　its

intervention。



Let　us　follow　out　the　effects　of　this　law　when　it　is　the　public　power

which；　beyond　its　principal　and　peculiar　task；　undertakes　a　different

task　and　puts　itself　in　the　place　of　corporate　bodies　to　do　their

work；　when　the　State；　not　content　with　protecting　the　community　and

individuals　against　external　or　internal　oppression；　takes　upon　itself

additionally　the　government　of　churches；　education；　or　charity；　the

direction　of　art；　science；　and　of　commercial；　agricultural；　municipal；

or　domestic　affairs。　…　Undoubtedly；　it　can　intervene　in　all　corporate

bodies　other　than　itself；　it　has　both　the　right　and　the　duty　to

interfere；　it　is　bound　to　do　this　through　its　very　office　as　defender

of　persons　and　property；　to　repress　in　these　bodies　spoliation　and

oppression；　to　compel　in　them　the　observance　of　the　primordial

statute；　charter；　or　contract；　to　maintain　in　the　them　rights　of　each

member　fixed　by　this　statute；　to　decide　according　to　this　statute　all

conflicts　which　may　arise　between　administrators　and　the

administrated；　between　directors　and　stockholders；　between　pastors　and

parishioners；　between　deceased　founders　and　their　living　successors。

In　doing　this；　it　affords　them　its　tribunals；　its　constables；　and　its

gendarmes；　and　it　affords　these　to　them　only　with　full　consent　after

having　looking　into　and　accepted　the　statute。　This；　too；　is　one　of　the

obligations　of　its　office：　its　mandate　hinders　it　from　placing　the

public　power　at　the　service　of　despoiling　and　oppressive　enterprises；

it　is　interdicted　from　authorizing　a　contract　for　prostitution　or

slavery；　and　above　all；　for　the　best　of　reasons；　a　society　for

brigandage　and　insurrections；　an　armed　league；　or　ready　to　arm　itself；

against　the　community；　or　a　part　of　the　community；　or　against　itself。

…　But；　between　this　legitimate　intervention　which　enables　it　to

maintain　rights；　and　the　abusive　interference　by　which　it　usurps

rights；　the　limit　is　visible　and　it　oversteps　this　limit　when；　to　its

function　of　justiciary；　it　adds　a　second；　that　of　governing　or

supporting　another　corporation。　In　this　case　two　series　of　abuses

unfold　themselves；　on　the　one　side；　the　State　acts　contrary　to　its

primary　office；　and；　on　the　other；　it　discharges　the　duties　of　its

superadded　office　badly。＇2＇



III。　The　State　attacks　persons　and　property。



It　acts　against　its　function。　Its　encroachments　are　attacks　on　persons

and　property。



For；　in　the　first　place；　to　govern　another　corporate　body；　for　example

the　Church；　the　State　at　one　time　appoints　its　ecclesiastical　heads；

as　under　the　old　monarchy　after　the　abolition　of　the　Pragmatic

Sanction　by　the　Concordat　of　1516；　at　another；　as　with　the　Constituent

Assembly　in　1791；　without　appointing　its　heads；　it　invents　a　new　mode

of　appointment　by　imposing　on　the　Church　a　discipline　contrary　to　its

spirit　and　even　to　its　dogmas。　Sometimes　it　goes　further　still　and

reduces　a　special　body　into　a　mere　administrative　branch；　transforming

its　heads　into　revocable　functionaries　whose　acts　it　orders　and

directs；　such　under　the　Empire　as　well　as　under　the　Restoration；　were

the　mayor　and　common…councilors　in　a　commune；　and　the　professors　and

head…masters　of　the　University。　One　step　more　and　the　invasion　is

complete：　naturally；　either　through　ambition　or　precaution；　or　through

theory　or　prejudice；　on　undertaking　a　new　service　it　is　tempted　to

reserve　to　itself　or　delegate　its　monopoly。　Before　1789　there　existed

one　of　these　monopolies　to　the　advantage　of　the　Catholic　Church；

through　the　interdiction　of　other　cults；　also　another　to　the　advantage

of　each　corporation　of　〃Arts　et　Métiers；〃　through　the　interdiction　of

free　labor；　after　1800；　there　existed　one　for　the　benefit　of　the

University　through　all　sorts　of　shackles　and　constraints　imposed　on

the　establishment　and　maintenance　of　private　schools。　…　Now；　through

each　of　these　constraints　the　State　encroaches　on　the　domain　of　the

individual；　the　more　extended　its　encroachments　the　more　does　it　prey

upon　and　reduce　the　circle　of　spontaneous　initiation　and　of

independent　action；　which　constitute　the　true　life　of　the　individual；

if；　in　conformity　with　the　Jacobin　program；　it　pushes　its　interference

to　the　end；　it　absorbs　in　itself　all　other　lives；＇3＇　henceforth；　the

community　consists　only　of　automata　maneuvered　from　above；　infinitely

small　residues　of　men；　passive；　mutilated；　and；　so　to　say；　dead　souls；

the　State；　instituted　to　preserve　persons；　has　reduced　them　to

nonentities。



The　effect　is　the　same　with　property　when　the　State　supports　other

organizations　than　its　own。　For；　to　maintain　these；　it　has　no　other

funds　than　those　of　the　taxpayers；　consequently；　using　its　collectors；

it　takes　the　money　out　of　their　pockets；　all；　indiscriminately；

willingly　or　not；　pay　supplementary　taxes　for　supplementary　services；

whether　this　service　benefits　them　or　is　repugnant　to　them。　If　I　am　a

Protestant　in　a　Catholic　State；　or　a　Catholic　in　a　Protestant　State；　I

pay　for　religion　which　seems　wrong　to　me　and　for　a　Church　which　seems

to　me　mischievous。　If　I　am　a　skeptic；　a　free…thinker；　indifferent　or

hostile　to　positive　religions　in　France；　I　pay　to…day　for　the　support

of　four　cults　which　I　regard　as　useless　or　pernicious。　If　I　am　a

provincial　or　a　peasant；　I　pay　f