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assumed that A belongs to no B�察�and B to some C�察�then A does not



belong to some C。 The conclusion then is true�察�but the premisses arc



false。







                                 3







  In the middle figure it is possible in every way to reach a true



conclusion through false premisses�察�whether the syllogisms are



universal or particular�察�viz。 when both premisses are wholly false��



when each is partially false�察�when one is true�察�the other wholly false



��it does not matter which of the two premisses is false���察�if both



premisses are partially false�察�if one is quite true�察�the other



partially false�察�if one is wholly false�察�the other partially true。 For



��1�� if A belongs to no B and to all C�察�e。g。 animal to no stone and



to every horse�察�then if the premisses are stated contrariwise and it



is assumed that A belongs to all B and to no C�察�though the premisses



are wholly false they will yield a true conclusion。 Similarly if A



belongs to all B and to no C�此�for we shall have the same syllogism。



  ��2�� Again if one premiss is wholly false�察�the other wholly true�此�for



nothing prevents A belonging to all B and to all C�察�though B belongs



to no C�察�e。g。 a genus to its co´ordinate species。 For animal belongs



to every horse and man�察�and no man is a horse。 If then it is assumed



that animal belongs to all of the one�察�and none of the other�察�the



one premiss will be wholly false�察�the other wholly true�察�and the



conclusion will be true whichever term the negative statement



concerns。



  ��3�� Also if one premiss is partially false�察�the other wholly true。



For it is possible that A should belong to some B and to all C�察�though



B belongs to no C�察�e。g。 animal to some white things and to every



raven�察�though white belongs to no raven。 If then it is assumed that



A belongs to no B�察�but to the whole of C�察�the premiss AB is



partially false�察�the premiss AC wholly true�察�and the conclusion



true。 Similarly if the negative statement is transposed�此�the proof can



be made by means of the same terms。 Also if the affirmative premiss is



partially false�察�the negative wholly true�察�a true conclusion is



possible。 For nothing prevents A belonging to some B�察�but not to C



as a whole�察�while B belongs to no C�察�e。g。 animal belongs to some white



things�察�but to no pitch�察�and white belongs to no pitch。 Consequently



if it is assumed that A belongs to the whole of B�察�but to no C�察�the



premiss AB is partially false�察�the premiss AC is wholly true�察�and



the conclusion is true。



  ��4�� And if both the premisses are partially false�察�the conclusion



may be true。 For it is possible that A should belong to some B and



to some C�察�and B to no C�察�e。g。 animal to some white things and to some



black things�察�though white belongs to nothing black。 If then it is



assumed that A belongs to all B and to no C�察�both premisses are



partially false�察�but the conclusion is true。 Similarly�察�if the



negative premiss is transposed�察�the proof can be made by means of



the same terms。



  It is clear also that our thesis holds in particular syllogisms。 For



��5�� nothing prevents A belonging to all B and to some C�察�though B does



not belong to some C�察�e。g。 animal to every man and to some white



things�察�though man will not belong to some white things。 If then it is



stated that A belongs to no B and to some C�察�the universal premiss



is wholly false�察�the particular premiss is true�察�and the conclusion is



true。 Similarly if the premiss AB is affirmative�此�for it is possible



that A should belong to no B�察�and not to some C�察�though B does not



belong to some C�察�e。g。 animal belongs to nothing lifeless�察�and does



not belong to some white things�察�and lifeless will not belong to



some white things。 If then it is stated that A belongs to all B and



not to some C�察�the premiss AB which is universal is wholly false��



the premiss AC is true�察�and the conclusion is true。 Also a true



conclusion is possible when the universal premiss is true�察�and the



particular is false。 For nothing prevents A following neither B nor



C at all�察�while B does not belong to some C�察�e。g。 animal belongs to no



number nor to anything lifeless�察�and number does not follow some



lifeless things。 If then it is stated that A belongs to no B and to



some C�察�the conclusion will be true�察�and the universal premiss true��



but the particular false。 Similarly if the premiss which is stated



universally is affirmative。 For it is possible that should A belong



both to B and to C as wholes�察�though B does not follow some C�察�e。g。



a genus in relation to its species and difference�此�for animal



follows every man and footed things as a whole�察�but man does not



follow every footed thing。 Consequently if it is assumed that A



belongs to the whole of B�察�but does not belong to some C�察�the



universal premiss is true�察�the particular false�察�and the conclusion



true。



  ��6�� It is clear too that though both premisses are false they may



yield a true conclusion�察�since it is possible that A should belong



both to B and to C as wholes�察�though B does not follow some C。 For



if it is assumed that A belongs to no B and to some C�察�the premisses



are both false�察�but the conclusion is true。 Similarly if the universal



premiss is affirmative and the particular negative。 For it is possible



that A should follow no B and all C�察�though B does not belong to



some C�察�e。g。 animal follows no science but every man�察�though science



does not follow every man。 If then A is assumed to belong to the whole



of B�察�and not to follow some C�察�the premisses are false but the



conclusion is true。







                                 4







  In the last figure a true conclusion may come through what is false��



alike when both premisses are wholly false�察�when each is partly false��



when one premiss is wholly true�察�the other false�察�when one premiss



is partly false�察�the other wholly true�察�and vice versa�察�and in every



other way in which it is possible to alter the premisses。 For ��1��



nothing prevents neither A nor B from belonging to any C�察�while A



belongs to some B�察�e。g。 neither man nor footed follows anything



lifeless�察�though man belongs to some footed things。 If then it is



assumed that A and B belong to all C�察�the premisses will be wholly



false�察�but the conclusion true。 Similarly if one premiss is



negative�察�the other affirmative。 For it is possible that B should



belong to no C�察�but A to all C�察�and that should not belong to some



B�察�e。g。 black belongs to no swan�察�animal to every swan�察�and animal not



to everything black。 Consequently if it is assumed that B belongs to



all C�察�and A to no C�察�A will not belong to some B�此�and the



conclusion is true�察�though the premisses are false。



  ��2�� Also if each premiss is partly false�察�the conclusion may be



true。 For nothing prevents both A and B from belonging to some C while



A belongs to some B�察�e。g。 white and beautiful belong to some



animals�察�and white to some beautiful things。 If then it is stated that



A and B belong to all C�察�the premisses are partially false�察�but the



conclusion is true。 Similarly if the premiss AC is stated as negative。



For nothing prevents A from not belonging�察�and B from belonging�察�to



some C�察�while A does not belong to all B�察�e。g。 white does not belong



to some animals�察�beautiful belongs to some animals�察�and white does not



belong to everything beautiful。 Consequently if it is assumed that A



belongs to no C�察�and B to all C�察�both premisses are partly false��



but the conclusion is true。



  ��3�� Similarly if one of the premisses assumed is wholly false�察�the



other wholly true。 For it is possible that both A and B should



follow all C�察�though A does not belong to some B�察�e。g。 animal and



white follow every swan�察�though animal does not belong to everything



white。 Taking these then as terms�察�if one assumes that B belongs to



the whole of C�察�but A does not belong to C at all�察�the premiss BC will



be wholly true�察�the premiss AC wholly false�察�and the conclusion



true。 Similarly if the statement BC is false�察�the statement AC true��



the conclusion may be true。 The same terms will serve for the proof。



Also if both the premisses assumed are affirmative�察�the conclusion may



be true。 For nothing prevents B from following all C�察�and A from not



belonging to C at all�察�though A belongs to some B�察�e。g。 animal belongs



to every swan�察�black to no swan�察�and black to some animals。



Consequently if it is assumed that A and B belong to every C�察�the



premiss BC is wholly true�察�the premiss AC is wholly false�察�and the



conclusion is true。 Similarly if the premiss AC whic

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