a history of science-1-第9节

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the　23d　of　Thoth；　the　parents　knew　it　could　not　live。　Those　born　on　the　20th　of　Choiakh　would　become　blind；　and　those　born　on　the　3d　of　Choiakh；　deaf。〃

CHARMS　AND　INCANTATIONS　Where　such　conceptions　as　these　pertained；　it　goes　without　saying　that　charms　and　incantations　intended　to　break　the　spell　of　the　unlucky　omens　were　equally　prevalent。　Such　incantations　consisted　usually　of　the　recitation　of　certain　phrases　based　originally；　it　would　appear；　upon　incidents　in　the　history　of　the　gods。　The　words　which　the　god　had　spoken　in　connection　with　some　lucky　incident　would；　it　was　thought；　prove　effective　now　in　bringing　good　luck　to　the　human　supplicantthat　is　to　say；　the　magician　hoped　through　repeating　the　words　of　the　god　to　exercise　the　magic　power　of　the　god。　It　was　even　possible；　with　the　aid　of　the　magical　observances；　partly　to　balk　fate　itself。　Thus　the　person　predestined　through　birth　on　an　unlucky　day　to　die　of　a　serpent　bite　might　postpone　the　time　of　this　fateful　visitation　to　extreme　old　age。　The　like　uncertainty　attached　to　those　spells　which　one　person　was　supposed　to　be　able　to　exercise　over　another。　It　was　held；　for　example；　that　if　something　belonging　to　an　individual；　such　as　a　lock　of　hair　or　a　paring　of　the　nails；　could　be　secured　and　incorporated　in　a　waxen　figure；　this　figure　would　be　intimately　associated　with　the　personality　of　that　individual。　An　enemy　might　thus　secure　occult　power　over　one；　any　indignity　practised　upon　the　waxen　figure　would　result　in　like　injury　to　its　human　prototype。　If　the　figure　were　bruised　or　beaten；　some　accident　would　overtake　its　double；　if　the　image　were　placed　over　a　fire；　the　human　being　would　fall　into　a　fever；　and　so　on。　But；　of　course；　such　mysterious　evils　as　these　would　be　met　and　combated　by　equally　mysterious　processes；　and　so　it　was　that　the　entire　art　of　medicine　was　closely　linked　with　magical　practices。　It　was　not；　indeed；　held；　according　to　Maspero；　that　the　magical　spells　of　enemies　were　the　sole　sources　of　human　ailments；　but　one　could　never　be　sure　to　what　extent　such　spells　entered　into　the　affliction；　and　so　closely　were　the　human　activities　associated　in　the　mind　of　the　Egyptian　with　one　form　or　another　of　occult　influences　that　purely　physical　conditions　were　at　a　discount。　In　the　later　times；　at　any　rate；　the　physician　was　usually　a　priest；　and　there　was　a　close　association　between　the　material　and　spiritual　phases　of　therapeutics。　Erman＇4＇　tells　us　that　the　following　formula　had　to　be　recited　at　the　preparation　of　all　medicaments：　〃That　Isis　might　make　free；　make　free。　That　Isis　might　make　Horus　free　from　all　evil　that　his　brother　Set　had　done　to　him　when　he　slew　his　father；　Osiris。　O　Isis；　great　enchantress；　free　me；　release　me　from　all　evil　red　things；　from　the　fever　of　the　god；　and　the　fever　of　the　goddess；　from　death　and　death　from　pain；　and　the　pain　which　comes　over　me；　as　thou　hast　freed；　as　thou　hast　released　thy　son　Horus；　whilst　I　enter　into　the　fire　and　come　forth　from　the　water；〃　etc。　Again；　when　the　invalid　took　the　medicine；　an　incantation　had　to　be　said　which　began　thus：　〃Come　remedy；　come　drive　it　out　of　my　heart；　out　of　these　limbs　strong　in　magic　power　with　the　remedy。〃　He　adds：　〃There　may　have　been　a　few　rationalists　amongst　the　Egyptian　doctors；　for　the　number　of　magic　formulae　varies　much　in　the　different　books。　The　book　that　we　have　specially　taken　for　a　foundation　for　this　account　of　Egyptian　medicine　the　great　papyrus　of　the　eighteenth　dynasty　edited　by　Ebers＇5＇contains；　for　instance；　far　fewer　exorcisms　than　some　later　writings　with　similar　contents；　probably　because　the　doctor　who　compiled　this　book　of　recipes　from　older　sources　had　very　little　liking　for　magic。〃　It　must　be　understood；　howeverindeed；　what　has　just　been　said　implies　as　muchthat　the　physician　by　no　means　relied　upon　incantations　alone；　on　the　contrary；　he　equipped　himself　with　an　astonishing　variety　of　medicaments。　He　had　a　particular　fondness　for　what　the　modern　physician　speaks　of　as　a　〃shot…gun〃　prescriptionone　containing　a　great　variety　of　ingredients。　Not　only　did　herbs　of　many　kinds　enter　into　this；　but　such　substances　as　lizard's　blood；　the　teeth　of　swine；　putrid　meat；　the　moisture　from　pigs'　ears；　boiled　horn；　and　numerous　other　even　more　repellent　ingredients。　Whoever　is　familiar　with　the　formulae　employed　by　European　physicians　even　so　recently　as　the　eighteenth　century　will　note　a　striking　similarity　here。　Erman　points　out　that　the　modern　Egyptian　even　of　this　day　holds　closely　to　many　of　the　practices　of　his　remote　ancestor。　In　particular；　the　efficacy　of　the　beetle　as　a　medicinal　agent　has　stood　the　test　of　ages　of　practice。　〃Against　all　kinds　of　witchcraft；〃　says　an　ancient　formula；　〃a　great　scarabaeus　beetle；　cut　off　his　head　and　wings；　boil　him；　put　him　in　oil　and　lay　him　out；　then　cook　his　head　and　wings；　put　them　in　snake　fat；　boil；　and　let　the　patient　drink　the　mixture。〃　The　modern　Egyptian；　says　Erman；　uses　almost　precisely　the　same　recipe；　except　that　the　snake　fat　is　replaced　by　modern　oil。　In　evidence　of　the　importance　which　was　attached　to　practical　medicine　in　the　Egypt　of　an　early　day；　the　names　of　several　physicians　have　come　down　to　us　from　an　age　which　has　preserved　very　few　names　indeed；　save　those　of　kings。　In　reference　to　this　Erman　says＇6＇：　〃We　still　know　the　names　of　some　of　the　early　body　physicians　of　this　time；　Sechmetna'eonch；　'chief　physician　of　the　Pharaoh；'　and　Nesmenan　his　chief；　the　'superintendent　of　the　physicians　of　the　Pharaoh。'　The　priests　also　of　the　lioness…headed　goddess　Sechmet　seem　to　have　been　famed　for　their　medical　wisdom；　whilst　the　son　of　this　goddess；　the　demi…god　Imhotep；　was　in　later　times　considered　to　be　the　creator　of　medical　knowledge。　These　ancient　doctors　of　the　New　Empire　do　not　seem　to　have　improved　upon　the　older　conceptions　about　the　construction　of　the　human　body。〃　As　to　the　actual　scientific　attainments　of　the　Egyptian　physician；　it　is　difficult　to　speak　with　precision。　Despite　the　cumbersome　formulae　and　the　grotesque　incantations；　we　need　not　doubt　that　a　certain　practical　value　attended　his　therapeutics。　He　practised　almost　pure　empiricism；　however；　and　certainly　it　must　have　been　almost　impossible　to　determine　which　ones；　if　any；　of　the　numerous　ingredients　of　the　prescription　had　real　efficacy。　The　practical　anatomical　knowledge　of　the　physician；　there　is　every　reason　to　believe；　was　extremely　limited。　At　first　thought　it　might　seem　that　the　practice　of　embalming　would　have　led　to　the　custom　of　dissecting　human　bodies；　and　that　the　Egyptians；　as　a　result　of　this；　would　have　excelled　in　the　knowledge　of　anatomy。　But　the　actual　results　were　rather　the　reverse　of　this。　Embalming　the　dead；　it　must　be　recalled；　was　a　purely　religious　observance。　It　took　place　under　the　superintendence　of　the　priests；　but　so　great　was　the　reverence　for　the　human　body　that　the　priests　themselves　were　not　permitted　to　make　the　abdominal　incision　which　was　a　necessary　preliminary　of　the　process。　This　incision；　as　we　are　informed　by　both　Herodotus＇7＇　and　Diodorus＇8＇；　was　made　by　a　special　officer；　whose　status；　if　we　may　believe　the　explicit　statement　of　Diodorus；　was　quite　comparable　to　that　of　the　modern　hangman。　The　paraschistas；　as　he　was　called；　having　performed　his　necessary　but　obnoxious　function；　with　the　aid　of　a　sharp　Ethiopian　stone；　retired　hastily；　leaving　the　remaining　processes　to　the　priests。　These；　however；　confined　their　observations　to　the　abdominal　viscera；　under　no　consideration　did　they　make　other　incisions　in　the　body。　It　follows；　therefore；　that　their　opportunity　for　anatomical　observations　was　most　limited。　Since　even　the　necessary　mutilation　inflicted　on　the　corpse　was　regarded　with　such　horror；　it　follows　that　anything　in　the　way　of　dissection　for　a　less　sacred　purpose　was　absolutely　prohibited。　Probably　the　same　prohibition　extended　to　a　large　number　of　animals；　since　most　of　these　were　held　sacred　in　one　part　of　Egypt　or　another。　Moreover；　there　is　nothing　in　what　we　know　of　the　Egyptian　mind　to　suggest　the　probability　that　any　Egyptian　physician　would　make　extensive　anatomical　observations　for　the　love　of　pure　knowledge。　All　Egyptian　science　is　eminently　practical。　If　we　think　of　the　Egyptian　as　mysterious；　it　is　because　of　the　superstitious　observances　that　we　everywhere　associate　with　his　daily　acts；　but　these；　as　we　have　already　tried　to　make　clear；　were　really　based　on　scientific　observations　of　a　kind；　and　the　attempt　at　true　inferences　from　these　observations。　But　whether　or　not　the　Egyptian　physician　desired　anatomical　knowledge；　the　results　of　his　inquiries　were　certainly　most　meagre。　The　essentials　of　his　system　had　to　do　with　a　series　of　vessels；　alleged　to　be　twenty…two　or　twenty…four　in　number；　which　penetrated　the　head　and　were　distributed　in　pairs　to　the　various　members　of　the　body；　and　which　were　vaguely　thought　of　as　carriers　of　water；　air；　excretory　fluids；　etc。　Yet　back　of　this　vagueness；　as　must　not　be　overlooked；　there　was　an　all…essential　recognition　of　the　heart　as　the　central　vascular　organ。　The　heart　is　called　the　beginning　of　all　the　members。　Its　vessels；　we　are　told；　〃lead　to　all　the　members；　whether　the　doctor　lays　his　finger　on　the　forehead；　on　the　back　of　the　head