a history of science-1-第8节

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d　the　knowledge　of　its　periodical　adjustment　constituted　a　relatively　high　development　of　scientific　knowledge　on　the　part　of　the　Egyptian　astronomer。　It　may　be　added　that　various　efforts　to　reform　the　calendar　were　made　by　the　ancient　Egyptians；　but　that　they　cannot　be　credited　with　a　satisfactory　solution　of　the　problem；　for；　of　course；　the　Alexandrian　scientists　of　the　Ptolemaic　period　（whose　work　we　shall　have　occasion　to　review　presently）　were　not　Egyptians　in　any　proper　sense　of　the　word；　but　Greeks。　Since　so　much　of　the　time　of　the　astronomer　priests　was　devoted　to　observation　of　the　heavenly　bodies；　it　is　not　surprising　that　they　should　have　mapped　out　the　apparent　course　of　the　moon　and　the　visible　planets　in　their　nightly　tour　of　the　heavens；　and　that　they　should　have　divided　the　stars　of　the　firmament　into　more　or　less　arbitrary　groups　or　constellations。　That　they　did　so　is　evidenced　by　various　sculptured　representations　of　constellations　corresponding　to　signs　of　the　zodiac　which　still　ornament　the　ceilings　of　various　ancient　temples。　Unfortunately　the　decorative　sense；　which　was　always　predominant　with　the　Egyptian　sculptor；　led　him　to　take　various　liberties　with　the　distribution　of　figures　in　these　representations　of　the　constellations；　so　that　the　inferences　drawn　from　them　as　to　the　exact　map　of　the　heavens　as　the　Egyptians　conceived　it　cannot　be　fully　relied　upon。　It　appears；　however；　that　the　Egyptian　astronomer　divided　the　zodiac　into　twenty…four　decani；　or　constellations。　The　arbitrary　groupings　of　figures；　with　the　aid　of　which　these　are　delineated；　bear　a　close　resemblance　to　the　equally　arbitrary　outlines　which　we　are　still　accustomed　to　use　for　the　same　purpose。

IDEAS　OF　COSMOLOGY　In　viewing　this　astronomical　system　of　the　Egyptians　one　cannot　avoid　the　question　as　to　just　what　interpretation　was　placed　upon　it　as　regards　the　actual　mechanical　structure　of　the　universe。　A　proximal　answer　to　the　question　is　supplied　us　with　a　good　deal　of　clearness。　It　appears　that　the　Egyptian　conceived　the　sky　as　a　sort　of　tangible　or　material　roof　placed　above　the　world；　and　supported　at　each　of　its　four　corners　by　a　column　or　pillar；　which　was　later　on　conceived　as　a　great　mountain。　The　earth　itself　was　conceived　to　be　a　rectangular　box；　longer　from　north　to　south　than　from　east　to　west；　the　upper　surface　of　this　box；　upon　which　man　lived；　being　slightly　concave　and　having；　of　course；　the　valley　of　the　Nile　as　its　centre。　The　pillars　of　support　were　situated　at　the　points　of　the　compass；　the　northern　one　being　located　beyond　the　Mediterranean　Sea；　the　southern　one　away　beyond　the　habitable　regions　towards　the　source　of　the　Nile；　and　the　eastern　and　western　ones　in　equally　inaccessible　regions。　Circling　about　the　southern　side　of　the；　world　was　a　great　river　suspended　in　mid…air　on　something　comparable　to　mountain　cliffs；　on　which　river　the　sun…god　made　his　daily　course　in　a　boat；　fighting　day　by　day　his　ever…recurring　battle　against　Set；　the　demon　of　darkness。　The　wide　channel　of　this　river　enabled　the　sun…god　to　alter　his　course　from　time　to　time；　as　he　is　observed　to　do；　in　winter　directing　his　bark　towards　the　farther　bank　of　the　channel；　in　summer　gliding　close　to　the　nearer　bank。　As　to　the　stars；　they　were　similar　lights；　suspended　from　the　vault　of　the　heaven；　but　just　how　their　observed　motion　of　translation　across　the　heavens　was　explained　is　not　apparent。　It　is　more　than　probable　that　no　one　explanation　was；　universally　accepted。　In　explaining　the　origin　of　this　mechanism　of　the　heavens；　the　Egyptian　imagination　ran　riot。　Each　separate　part　of　Egypt　had　its　own　hierarchy　of　gods；　and　more　or　less　its　own　explanations　of　cosmogony。　There　does　not　appear　to　have　been　any　one　central　story　of　creation　that　found　universal　acceptance；　any　more　than　there　was　one　specific　deity　everywhere　recognized　as　supreme　among　the　gods。　Perhaps　the　most　interesting　of　the　cosmogonic　myths　was　that　which　conceived　that　Nuit；　the　goddess　of　night；　had　been　torn　from　the　arms　of　her　husband；　Sibu　the　earth…god；　and　elevated　to　the　sky　despite　her　protests　and　her　husband's　struggles；　there　to　remain　supported　by　her　four　limbs；　which　became　metamorphosed　into　the　pillars；　or　mountains；　already　mentioned。　The　forcible　elevation　of　Nuit　had　been　effected　on　the　day　of　creation　by　a　new　god；　Shu；　who　came　forth　from　the　primeval　waters。　A　painting　on　the　mummy　case　of　one　Betuhamon；　now　in　the　Turin　Museum；　illustrates；　in　the　graphic　manner　so　characteristic　of　the　Egyptians；　this　act　of　creation。　As　Maspero＇2＇　points　out；　the　struggle　of　Sibu　resulted　in　contorted　attitudes　to　which　the　irregularities　of　the　earth's　surface　are　to　be　ascribed。　In　contemplating　such　a　scheme　of　celestial　mechanics　as　that　just　outlined；　one　cannot　avoid　raising　the　question　as　to　just　the　degree　of　literalness　which　the　Egyptians　themselves　put　upon　it。　We　know　how　essentially　eye…minded　the　Egyptian　was；　to　use　a　modern　psychological　phrasethat　is　to　say；　how　essential　to　him　it　seemed　that　all　his　conceptions　should　be　visualized。　The　evidences　of　this　are　everywhere：　all　his　gods　were　made　tangible；　he　believed　in　the　immortality　of　the　soul；　yet　he　could　not　conceive　of　such　immortality　except　in　association　with　an　immortal　body；　he　must　mummify　the　body　of　the　dead；　else；　as　he　firmly　believed；　the　dissolution　of　the　spirit　would　take　place　along　with　the　dissolution　of　the　body　itself。　His　world　was　peopled　everywhere　with　spirits；　but　they　were　spirits　associated　always　with　corporeal　bodies；　his　gods　found　lodgment　in　sun　and　moon　and　stars；　in　earth　and　water；　in　the　bodies　of　reptiles　and　birds　and　mammals。　He　worshipped　all　of　these　things：　the　sun；　the　moon；　water；　earth；　the　spirit　of　the　Nile；　the　ibis；　the　cat；　the　ram；　and　apis　the　bull；　but；　so　far　as　we　can　judge；　his　imagination　did　not　reach　to　the　idea　of　an　absolutely　incorporeal　deity。　Similarly　his　conception　of　the　mechanism　of　the　heavens　must　be　a　tangibly　mechanical　one。　He　must　think　of　the　starry　firmament　as　a　substantial　entity　which　could　not　defy　the　law　of　gravitation；　and　which；　therefore；　must　have　the　same　manner　of　support　as　is　required　by　the　roof　of　a　house　or　temple。　We　know　that　this　idea　of　the　materiality　of　the　firmament　found　elaborate　expression　in　those　later　cosmological　guesses　which　were　to　dominate　the　thought　of　Europe　until　the　time　of　Newton。　We　need　not　doubt；　therefore；　that　for　the　Egyptian　this　solid　vault　of　the　heavens　had　a　very　real　existence。　If　now　and　then　some　dreamer　conceived　the　great　bodies　of　the　firmament　as　floating　in　a　less　material　plenumand　such　iconoclastic　dreamers　there　are　in　all　agesno　record　of　his　musings　has　come　down　to　us；　and　we　must　freely　admit　that　if　such　thoughts　existed　they　were　alien　to　the　character　of　the　Egyptian　mind　as　a　whole。　While　the　Egyptians　conceived　the　heavenly　bodies　as　the　abiding…place　of　various　of　their　deities；　it　does　not　appear　that　they　practised　astrology　in　the　later　acceptance　of　that　word。　This　is　the　more　remarkable　since　the　conception　of　lucky　and　unlucky　days　was　carried　by　the　Egyptians　to　the　extremes　of　absurdity。　〃One　day　was　lucky　or　unlucky；〃　says　Erman；＇3＇　〃according　as　a　good　or　bad　mythological　incident　took　place　on　that　day。　For　instance；　the　1st　of　Mechir；　on　which　day　the　sky　was　raised；　and　the　27th　of　Athyr；　when　Horus　and；　Set　concluded　peace　together　and　divided　the　world　between　them；　were　lucky　days；　on　the　other　hand；　the　14th　of　Tybi；　on　which　Isis　and　Nephthys　mourned　for　Osiris；　was　an　unlucky　day。　With　the　unlucky　days；　which；　fortunately；　were　less　in　number　than　the　lucky　days；　they　distinguished　different　degrees　of　ill…luck。　Some　were　very　unlucky；　others　only　threatened　ill…luck；　and　many；　like　the　17th　and　the　27th　Choiakh；　were　partly　good　and　partly　bad　according　to　the　time　of　day。　Lucky　days　might；　as　a　rule；　be　disregarded。　At　most　it　might　be　as　well　to　visit　some　specially　renowned　temple；　or　to　'celebrate　a　joyful　day　at　home；'　but　no　particular　precautions　were　really　necessary；　and；　above　all；　it　was　said；　'what　thou　also　seest　on　the　day　is　lucky。'　It　was　quite　otherwise　with　the　unlucky　and　dangerous　days；　which　imposed　so　many　and　such　great　limitations　on　people　that　those　who　wished　to　be　prudent　were　always　obliged　to　bear　them　in　mind　when　determining　on　any　course　of　action。　Certain　conditions　were　easy　to　carry　out。　Music　and　singing　were　to　be　avoided　on　the　14th　Tybi；　the　day　of　the　mourning　of　Osiris；　and　no　one　was　allowed　to　wash　on　the　16th　Tybi；　whilst　the　name　of　Set　might　not　be　pronounced　on　the　24th　of　Pharmuthi。　Fish　was　forbidden　on　certain　days；　and　what　was　still　more　difficult　in　a　country　so　rich　in　mice；　on　the　12th　of　Tybi　no　mouse　might　be　seen。　The　most　tiresome　prohibitions；　however；　were　those　which　occurred　not　infrequently；　namely；　those　concerning　work　and　going　out：　for　instance；　four　times　in　Paophi　the　people　had　to　'do　nothing　at　all；'　and　five　times　to　sit　the　whole　day　or　half　the　day　in　the　house；　and　the　same　rule　had　to　be　observed　each　month。　It　was　impossible　to　rejoice　if　a　child　was　born　on　the　23d　of　Thoth；　the　parents　knew　it　could　not　live。　Those　born　on　the　20th　of　Choiakh　would　become