Ì«×ÓүС˵Íø > Ó¢Óïµç×ÓÊé > a history of science-1 >

µÚ18½Ú

a history of science-1-µÚ18½Ú

С˵£º a history of science-1 ×ÖÊý£º ÿҳ4000×Ö

°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡û »ò ¡ú ¿É¿ìËÙÉÏÏ·­Ò³£¬°´¼üÅÌÉ쵀 Enter ¼ü¿É»Øµ½±¾ÊéĿ¼ҳ£¬°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡ü ¿É»Øµ½±¾Ò³¶¥²¿£¡
¡ª¡ª¡ª¡ªÎ´ÔĶÁÍꣿ¼ÓÈëÊéÇ©ÒѱãÏ´μÌÐøÔĶÁ£¡



old¡¡syllabary¡¡continued¡¡to¡¡be¡¡used¡¡in¡¡Babylon¡¡hundreds¡¡of¡¡years¡¡after¡¡the¡¡alphabetical¡¡system¡¡had¡¡been¡¡introduced¡££§7£§¡¡Custom¡¡is¡¡everything¡¡in¡¡establishing¡¡our¡¡prejudices¡£¡¡The¡¡Japanese¡¡to¡­day¡¡rebel¡¡against¡¡the¡¡introduction¡¡of¡¡an¡¡alphabet£»¡¡thinking¡¡it¡¡ambiguous¡£¡¡Yet£»¡¡in¡¡the¡¡end£»¡¡conservatism¡¡always¡¡yields£»¡¡and¡¡so¡¡it¡¡was¡¡with¡¡opposition¡¡to¡¡the¡¡alphabet¡£¡¡Once¡¡the¡¡idea¡¡of¡¡the¡¡consonant¡¡had¡¡been¡¡firmly¡¡grasped£»¡¡the¡¡old¡¡syllabary¡¡was¡¡doomed£»¡¡though¡¡generations¡¡of¡¡time¡¡might¡¡be¡¡required¡¡to¡¡complete¡¡the¡¡obsequiesgenerations¡¡of¡¡time¡¡and¡¡the¡¡influence¡¡of¡¡a¡¡new¡¡nation¡£¡¡We¡¡have¡¡now¡¡to¡¡inquire¡¡how¡¡and¡¡by¡¡whom¡¡this¡¡advance¡¡was¡¡made¡£

THE¡¡ALPHABET¡¡ACHIEVED¡¡We¡¡cannot¡¡believe¡¡that¡¡any¡¡nation¡¡could¡¡have¡¡vaulted¡¡to¡¡the¡¡final¡¡stage¡¡of¡¡the¡¡simple¡¡alphabetical¡¡writing¡¡without¡¡tracing¡¡the¡¡devious¡¡and¡¡difficult¡¡way¡¡of¡¡the¡¡pictograph¡¡and¡¡the¡¡syllabary¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡possible£»¡¡however£»¡¡for¡¡a¡¡cultivated¡¡nation¡¡to¡¡build¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡shoulders¡¡of¡¡its¡¡neighbors£»¡¡and£»¡¡profiting¡¡by¡¡the¡¡experience¡¡of¡¡others£»¡¡to¡¡make¡¡sudden¡¡leaps¡¡upward¡¡and¡¡onward¡£¡¡And¡¡this¡¡is¡¡seemingly¡¡what¡¡happened¡¡in¡¡the¡¡final¡¡development¡¡of¡¡the¡¡art¡¡of¡¡writing¡£¡¡For¡¡while¡¡the¡¡Babylonians¡¡and¡¡Assyrians¡¡rested¡¡content¡¡with¡¡their¡¡elaborate¡¡syllabary£»¡¡a¡¡nation¡¡on¡¡either¡¡side¡¡of¡¡them£»¡¡geographically¡¡speaking£»¡¡solved¡¡the¡¡problem£»¡¡which¡¡they¡¡perhaps¡¡did¡¡not¡¡even¡¡recognize¡¡as¡¡a¡¡problem£»¡¡wrested¡¡from¡¡their¡¡syllabary¡¡its¡¡secret¡¡of¡¡consonants¡¡and¡¡vowels£»¡¡and¡¡by¡¡adopting¡¡an¡¡arbitrary¡¡sign¡¡for¡¡each¡¡consonantal¡¡sound£»¡¡produced¡¡that¡¡most¡¡wonderful¡¡of¡¡human¡¡inventions£»¡¡the¡¡alphabet¡£¡¡The¡¡two¡¡nations¡¡credited¡¡with¡¡this¡¡wonderful¡¡achievement¡¡are¡¡the¡¡Phoenicians¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Persians¡£¡¡But¡¡it¡¡is¡¡not¡¡usually¡¡conceded¡¡that¡¡the¡¡two¡¡are¡¡entitled¡¡to¡¡anything¡¡like¡¡equal¡¡credit¡£¡¡The¡¡Persians£»¡¡probably¡¡in¡¡the¡¡time¡¡of¡¡Cyrus¡¡the¡¡Great£»¡¡used¡¡certain¡¡characters¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Babylonian¡¡script¡¡for¡¡the¡¡construction¡¡of¡¡an¡¡alphabet£»¡¡but¡¡at¡¡this¡¡time¡¡the¡¡Phoenician¡¡alphabet¡¡had¡¡undoubtedly¡¡been¡¡in¡¡use¡¡for¡¡some¡¡centuries£»¡¡and¡¡it¡¡is¡¡more¡¡than¡¡probable¡¡that¡¡the¡¡Persian¡¡borrowed¡¡his¡¡idea¡¡of¡¡an¡¡alphabet¡¡from¡¡a¡¡Phoenician¡¡source¡£¡¡And¡¡that£»¡¡of¡¡course£»¡¡makes¡¡all¡¡the¡¡difference¡£¡¡Granted¡¡the¡¡idea¡¡of¡¡an¡¡alphabet£»¡¡it¡¡requires¡¡no¡¡great¡¡reach¡¡of¡¡constructive¡¡genius¡¡to¡¡supply¡¡a¡¡set¡¡of¡¡alphabetical¡¡characters£»¡¡though¡¡even¡¡here£»¡¡it¡¡may¡¡be¡¡added¡¡parenthetically£»¡¡a¡¡study¡¡of¡¡the¡¡development¡¡of¡¡alphabets¡¡will¡¡show¡¡that¡¡mankind¡¡has¡¡all¡¡along¡¡had¡¡a¡¡characteristic¡¡propensity¡¡to¡¡copy¡¡rather¡¡than¡¡to¡¡invent¡£¡¡Regarding¡¡the¡¡Persian¡¡alphabet¡­maker£»¡¡then£»¡¡as¡¡a¡¡copyist¡¡rather¡¡than¡¡a¡¡true¡¡inventor£»¡¡it¡¡remains¡¡to¡¡turn¡¡attention¡¡to¡¡the¡¡Phoenician¡¡source¡¡whence£»¡¡as¡¡is¡¡commonly¡¡believed£»¡¡the¡¡original¡¡alphabet¡¡which¡¡became¡¡¡¨the¡¡mother¡¡of¡¡all¡¡existing¡¡alphabets¡¨¡¡came¡¡into¡¡being¡£¡¡It¡¡must¡¡be¡¡admitted¡¡at¡¡the¡¡outset¡¡that¡¡evidence¡¡for¡¡the¡¡Phoenician¡¡origin¡¡of¡¡this¡¡alphabet¡¡is¡¡traditional¡¡rather¡¡than¡¡demonstrative¡£¡¡The¡¡Phoenicians¡¡were¡¡the¡¡great¡¡traders¡¡of¡¡antiquity£»¡¡undoubtedly¡¡they¡¡were¡¡largely¡¡responsible¡¡for¡¡the¡¡transmission¡¡of¡¡the¡¡alphabet¡¡from¡¡one¡¡part¡¡of¡¡the¡¡world¡¡to¡¡another£»¡¡once¡¡it¡¡had¡¡been¡¡invented¡£¡¡Too¡¡much¡¡credit¡¡cannot¡¡be¡¡given¡¡them¡¡for¡¡this£»¡¡and¡¡as¡¡the¡¡world¡¡always¡¡honors¡¡him¡¡who¡¡makes¡¡an¡¡idea¡¡fertile¡¡rather¡¡than¡¡the¡¡originator¡¡of¡¡the¡¡idea£»¡¡there¡¡can¡¡be¡¡little¡¡injustice¡¡in¡¡continuing¡¡to¡¡speak¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Phoenicians¡¡as¡¡the¡¡inventors¡¡of¡¡the¡¡alphabet¡£¡¡But¡¡the¡¡actual¡¡facts¡¡of¡¡the¡¡case¡¡will¡¡probably¡¡never¡¡be¡¡known¡£¡¡For¡¡aught¡¡we¡¡know£»¡¡it¡¡may¡¡have¡¡been¡¡some¡¡dreamy¡­eyed¡¡Israelite£»¡¡some¡¡Babylonian¡¡philosopher£»¡¡some¡¡Egyptian¡¡mystic£»¡¡perhaps¡¡even¡¡some¡¡obscure¡¡Cretan£»¡¡who¡¡gave¡¡to¡¡the¡¡hard¡­headed¡¡Phoenician¡¡trader¡¡this¡¡conception¡¡of¡¡a¡¡dismembered¡¡syllable¡¡with¡¡its¡¡all¡­essential£»¡¡elemental£»¡¡wonder¡­working¡¡consonant¡£¡¡But¡¡it¡¡is¡¡futile¡¡now¡¡to¡¡attempt¡¡even¡¡to¡¡surmise¡¡on¡¡such¡¡unfathomable¡¡details¡¡as¡¡these¡£¡¡Suffice¡¡it¡¡that¡¡the¡¡analysis¡¡was¡¡made£»¡¡that¡¡one¡¡sign¡¡and¡¡no¡¡more¡¡was¡¡adopted¡¡for¡¡each¡¡consonantal¡¡sound¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Semitic¡¡tongue£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡the¡¡entire¡¡cumbersome¡¡mechanism¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Egyptian¡¡and¡¡Babylonian¡¡writing¡¡systems¡¡was¡¡rendered¡¡obsolescent¡£¡¡These¡¡systems¡¡did¡¡not¡¡yield¡¡at¡¡once£»¡¡to¡¡be¡¡sure£»¡¡all¡¡human¡¡experience¡¡would¡¡have¡¡been¡¡set¡¡at¡¡naught¡¡had¡¡they¡¡done¡¡so¡£¡¡They¡¡held¡¡their¡¡own£»¡¡and¡¡much¡¡more¡¡than¡¡held¡¡their¡¡own£»¡¡for¡¡many¡¡centuries¡£¡¡After¡¡the¡¡Phoenicians¡¡as¡¡a¡¡nation¡¡had¡¡ceased¡¡to¡¡have¡¡importance£»¡¡after¡¡their¡¡original¡¡script¡¡had¡¡been¡¡endlessly¡¡modified¡¡by¡¡many¡¡alien¡¡nations£»¡¡after¡¡the¡¡original¡¡alphabet¡¡had¡¡made¡¡the¡¡conquest¡¡of¡¡all¡¡civilized¡¡Europe¡¡and¡¡of¡¡far¡¡outlying¡¡portions¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Orientthe¡¡Egyptian¡¡and¡¡Babylonian¡¡scribes¡¡continued¡¡to¡¡indite¡¡their¡¡missives¡¡in¡¡the¡¡same¡¡old¡¡pictographs¡¡and¡¡syllables¡£¡¡The¡¡inventive¡¡thinker¡¡must¡¡have¡¡been¡¡struck¡¡with¡¡amazement¡¡when£»¡¡after¡¡making¡¡the¡¡fullest¡¡analysis¡¡of¡¡speech¡­sounds¡¡of¡¡which¡¡he¡¡was¡¡capable£»¡¡he¡¡found¡¡himself¡¡supplied¡¡with¡¡only¡¡a¡¡score¡¡or¡¡so¡¡of¡¡symbols¡£¡¡Yet¡¡as¡¡regards¡¡the¡¡consonantal¡¡sounds¡¡he¡¡had¡¡exhausted¡¡the¡¡resources¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Semitic¡¡tongue¡£¡¡As¡¡to¡¡vowels£»¡¡he¡¡scarcely¡¡considered¡¡them¡¡at¡¡all¡£¡¡It¡¡seemed¡¡to¡¡him¡¡sufficient¡¡to¡¡use¡¡one¡¡symbol¡¡for¡¡each¡¡consonantal¡¡sound¡£¡¡This¡¡reduced¡¡the¡¡hitherto¡¡complex¡¡mechanism¡¡of¡¡writing¡¡to¡¡so¡¡simple¡¡a¡¡system¡¡that¡¡the¡¡inventor¡¡must¡¡have¡¡regarded¡¡it¡¡with¡¡sheer¡¡delight¡£¡¡On¡¡the¡¡other¡¡hand£»¡¡the¡¡conservative¡¡scholar¡¡doubtless¡¡thought¡¡it¡¡distinctly¡¡ambiguous¡£¡¡In¡¡truth£»¡¡it¡¡must¡¡be¡¡admitted¡¡that¡¡the¡¡system¡¡was¡¡imperfect¡£¡¡It¡¡was¡¡a¡¡vast¡¡improvement¡¡on¡¡the¡¡old¡¡syllabary£»¡¡but¡¡it¡¡had¡¡its¡¡drawbacks¡£¡¡Perhaps¡¡it¡¡had¡¡been¡¡made¡¡a¡¡bit¡¡too¡¡simple£»¡¡certainly¡¡it¡¡should¡¡have¡¡had¡¡symbols¡¡for¡¡the¡¡vowel¡¡sounds¡¡as¡¡well¡¡as¡¡for¡¡the¡¡consonants¡£¡¡Nevertheless£»¡¡the¡¡vowel¡­lacking¡¡alphabet¡¡seems¡¡to¡¡have¡¡taken¡¡the¡¡popular¡¡fancy£»¡¡and¡¡to¡¡this¡¡day¡¡Semitic¡¡people¡¡have¡¡never¡¡supplied¡¡its¡¡deficiencies¡¡save¡¡with¡¡certain¡¡dots¡¡and¡¡points¡£¡¡Peoples¡¡using¡¡the¡¡Aryan¡¡speech¡¡soon¡¡saw¡¡the¡¡defect£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Greeks¡¡supplied¡¡symbols¡¡for¡¡several¡¡new¡¡sounds¡¡at¡¡a¡¡very¡¡early¡¡day¡££§8£§¡¡But¡¡there¡¡the¡¡matter¡¡rested£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡alphabet¡¡has¡¡remained¡¡imperfect¡£¡¡For¡¡the¡¡purposes¡¡of¡¡the¡¡English¡¡language¡¡there¡¡should¡¡certainly¡¡have¡¡been¡¡added¡¡a¡¡dozen¡¡or¡¡more¡¡new¡¡characters¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡clear£»¡¡for¡¡example£»¡¡that£»¡¡in¡¡the¡¡interest¡¡of¡¡explicitness£»¡¡we¡¡should¡¡have¡¡a¡¡separate¡¡symbol¡¡for¡¡the¡¡vowel¡¡sound¡¡in¡¡each¡¡of¡¡the¡¡following¡¡syllables£º¡¡bar£»¡¡bay£»¡¡bann£»¡¡ball£»¡¡to¡¡cite¡¡a¡¡single¡¡illustration¡£¡¡There¡¡is£»¡¡to¡¡be¡¡sure£»¡¡a¡¡seemingly¡¡valid¡¡reason¡¡for¡¡not¡¡extending¡¡our¡¡alphabet£»¡¡in¡¡the¡¡fact¡¡that¡¡in¡¡multiplying¡¡syllables¡¡it¡¡would¡¡be¡¡difficult¡¡to¡¡select¡¡characters¡¡at¡¡once¡¡easy¡¡to¡¡make¡¡and¡¡unambiguous¡£¡¡Moreover£»¡¡the¡¡conservatives¡¡might¡¡point¡¡out£»¡¡with¡¡telling¡¡effect£»¡¡that¡¡the¡¡present¡¡alphabet¡¡has¡¡proved¡¡admirably¡¡effective¡¡for¡¡about¡¡three¡¡thousand¡¡years¡£¡¡Yet¡¡the¡¡fact¡¡that¡¡our¡¡dictionaries¡¡supply¡¡diacritical¡¡marks¡¡for¡¡some¡¡thirty¡¡vowels¡¡sounds¡¡to¡¡indicate¡¡the¡¡pronunciation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡words¡¡of¡¡our¡¡every¡­day¡¡speech£»¡¡shows¡¡how¡¡we¡¡let¡¡memory¡¡and¡¡guessing¡¡do¡¡the¡¡work¡¡that¡¡might¡¡reasonably¡¡be¡¡demanded¡¡of¡¡a¡¡really¡¡complete¡¡alphabet¡£¡¡But£»¡¡whatever¡¡its¡¡defects£»¡¡the¡¡existing¡¡alphabet¡¡is¡¡a¡¡marvellous¡¡piece¡¡of¡¡mechanism£»¡¡the¡¡result¡¡of¡¡thousands¡¡of¡¡years¡¡of¡¡intellectual¡¡effort¡£¡¡It¡¡is£»¡¡perhaps¡¡without¡¡exception£»¡¡the¡¡most¡¡stupendous¡¡invention¡¡of¡¡the¡¡human¡¡intellect¡¡within¡¡historical¡¡timesan¡¡achievement¡¡taking¡¡rank¡¡with¡¡such¡¡great¡¡prehistoric¡¡discoveries¡¡as¡¡the¡¡use¡¡of¡¡articulate¡¡speech£»¡¡the¡¡making¡¡of¡¡a¡¡fire£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡invention¡¡of¡¡stone¡¡implements£»¡¡of¡¡the¡¡wheel¡¡and¡¡axle£»¡¡and¡¡of¡¡picture¡­writing¡£¡¡It¡¡made¡¡possible¡¡for¡¡the¡¡first¡¡time¡¡that¡¡education¡¡of¡¡the¡¡masses¡¡upon¡¡which¡¡all¡¡later¡¡progress¡¡of¡¡civilization¡¡was¡¡so¡¡largely¡¡to¡¡depend¡£

V¡£¡¡THE¡¡BEGINNINGS¡¡OF¡¡GREEK¡¡SCIENCE¡¡Herodotus£»¡¡the¡¡Father¡¡of¡¡History£»¡¡tells¡¡us¡¡that¡¡once¡¡upon¡¡a¡¡timewhich¡¡time£»¡¡as¡¡the¡¡modern¡¡computator¡¡shows¡¡us£»¡¡was¡¡about¡¡the¡¡year¡¡590¡¡B¡£C¡£¡¡a¡¡war¡¡had¡¡risen¡¡between¡¡the¡¡Lydians¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Medes¡¡and¡¡continued¡¡five¡¡years¡£¡¡¡¨In¡¡these¡¡years¡¡the¡¡Medes¡¡often¡¡discomfited¡¡the¡¡Lydians¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Lydians¡¡often¡¡discomfited¡¡the¡¡Medes¡¡£¨and¡¡among¡¡other¡¡things¡¡they¡¡fought¡¡a¡¡battle¡¡by¡¡night£©£»¡¡and¡¡yet¡¡they¡¡still¡¡carried¡¡on¡¡the¡¡war¡¡with¡¡equally¡¡balanced¡¡fortitude¡£¡¡In¡¡the¡¡sixth¡¡year¡¡a¡¡battle¡¡took¡¡place¡¡in¡¡which¡¡it¡¡happened£»¡¡when¡¡the¡¡fight¡¡had¡¡begun£»¡¡that¡¡suddenly¡¡the¡¡day¡¡became¡¡night¡£¡¡And¡¡this¡¡change¡¡of¡¡the¡¡day¡¡Thales£»¡¡the¡¡Milesian£»¡¡had¡¡foretold¡¡to¡¡the¡¡Ionians£»¡¡laying¡¡down¡¡as¡¡a¡¡limit¡¡this¡¡very¡¡year¡¡in¡¡which¡¡the¡¡change¡¡took¡¡place¡£¡¡The¡¡Lydians£»¡¡however£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Medes£»¡¡when¡¡they¡¡saw¡¡that¡¡it¡¡had¡¡become¡¡night¡¡instead¡¡of¡¡day£»¡¡ceased¡¡from¡¡their¡¡fighting¡¡and¡¡were¡¡much¡¡more¡¡eager£»¡¡both¡¡of¡¡them£»¡¡that¡¡peace¡¡should¡¡be¡¡made¡¡between¡¡them¡£¡¨¡¡This¡¡memorable¡¡incident¡¡occurred¡¡while¡¡Alyattus£»¡¡father¡¡of¡¡Croesus£»¡¡was¡¡king¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Lydians¡£¡¡The¡¡modern¡¡astronomer£»¡¡reckoning¡¡backward£»¡¡estimates¡¡this¡¡eclipse¡¡as¡¡occurring¡¡probably¡¡May¡¡25th£»¡¡585¡¡B¡£C¡£¡¡The¡¡date¡¡is¡¡important¡¡as¡¡fixing¡¡a¡¡mile¡­stone¡¡in¡¡the¡¡chronology¡¡of¡¡ancient¡¡history£»¡¡but¡¡it¡¡is¡¡doubly¡¡memorable¡¡because¡¡it¡¡is¡¡the¡¡first¡¡recorded¡¡instance¡¡of¡¡a¡¡predicted¡¡eclipse¡£¡¡Herodotus£»¡¡who¡¡tells¡¡the¡¡story£»¡¡was¡¡not¡¡born¡¡until¡¡about¡¡one¡¡hundred¡¡years¡¡after¡¡the¡¡incident¡¡occurred£»¡¡but¡¡time¡¡had¡¡not¡¡dimmed¡¡the¡¡fame¡¡of¡¡the¡¡man¡¡who¡¡had¡¡performed¡¡the¡¡necromantic¡¡feat¡¡of¡¡prophecy¡£¡¡Thales£»¡¡the¡¡Milesian£»¡¡thanks¡¡in¡¡part¡¡at¡¡least¡¡to¡¡this¡¡accomplishment£»¡¡had¡¡been¡¡known¡¡in¡¡life¡¡as¡¡first¡¡on¡¡the¡¡list¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Seven¡¡Wise¡¡Men¡¡of¡¡Greece£»¡¡and¡¡had¡¡passed¡¡into¡¡history¡¡as¡¡the¡¡father¡¡of¡¡Greek¡¡philosophy¡£¡¡We¡¡may¡¡add¡¡that¡¡he¡¡had¡¡even¡¡found¡¡wider¡¡popular¡¡fame¡¡through¡¡being¡¡named¡¡by¡¡Hippolytus£»¡¡and¡¡then¡¡by¡¡Father¡¡aesop£»¡¡as¡¡the¡¡philosopher¡¡who£»¡¡intent¡¡on¡¡studying¡¡the¡¡heavens£»¡¡fell¡¡into¡¡a¡¡well£»¡¡¡¨whereupon£»¡¨¡¡says¡¡Hippolytus£»¡¡¡¨a¡¡maid¡­servant¡¡n

·µ»ØĿ¼ ÉÏÒ»Ò³ ÏÂÒ»Ò³ »Øµ½¶¥²¿ ÔÞ£¨0£© ²È£¨0£©

Äã¿ÉÄÜϲ»¶µÄ