a history of science-1-第17节

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d　for　many　centuries。　Yet；　as　we　have　said；　some　genius　of　prehistoric　Egypt　conceived　the　idea　and　put　it　into　practical　execution；　and　the　hieroglyphic　writing　of　which　the　Egyptians　were　in　full　possession　at　the　very　beginning　of　what　we　term　the　historical　period　made　use　of　this　phonetic　system　along　with　the　ideographic　system　already　described。　So　fond　were　the　Egyptians　of　their　pictorial　symbols　used　ideographically　that　they　clung　to　them　persistently　throughout　the　entire　period　of　Egyptian　history。　They　used　symbols　as　phonetic　equivalents　very　frequently；　but　they　never　learned　to　depend　upon　them　exclusively。　The　scribe　always　interspersed　his　phonetic　signs　with　some　other　signs　intended　as　graphic　aids。　After　spelling　a　word　out　in　full；　he　added　a　picture；　sometimes　even　two　or　three　pictures；　representative　of　the　individual　thing；　or　at　least　of　the　type　of　thing　to　which　the　word　belongs。　Two　or　three　illustrations　will　make　this　clear。　Thus　qeften；　monkey；　is　spelled　out　in　full；　but　the　picture　of　a　monkey　is　added　as　a　determinative；　second；　qenu；　cavalry；　after　being　spelled；　is　made　unequivocal　by　the　introduction　of　a　picture　of　a　horse；　third；　temati；　wings；　though　spelled　elaborately；　has　pictures　of　wings　added；　and　fourth；　tatu；　quadrupeds；　after　being　spelled；　has　a　picture　of　a　quadruped；　and　then　the　picture　of　a　hide；　which　is　the　usual　determinative　of　a　quadruped；　followed　by　three　dashes　to　indicate　the　plural　number。　It　must　not　be　supposed；　however；　that　it　was　a　mere　whim　which　led　the　Egyptians　to　the　use　of　this　system　of　determinatives。　There　was　sound　reason　back　of　it。　It　amounted　to　no　more　than　the　expedient　we　adopt　when　we　spell　〃to；〃　〃two；〃　or　〃too；〃　in　indication　of　a　single　sound　with　three　different　meanings。　The　Egyptian　language　abounds　in　words　having　more　than　one　meaning；　and　in　writing　these　it　is　obvious　that　some　means　of　distinction　is　desirable。　The　same　thing　occurs　even　more　frequently　in　the　Chinese　language；　which　is　monosyllabic。　The　Chinese　adopt　a　more　clumsy　expedient；　supplying　a　different　symbol　for　each　of　the　meanings　of　a　syllable；　so　that　while　the　actual　word…sounds　of　their　speech　are　only　a　few　hundreds　in　number；　the　characters　of　their　written　language　mount　high　into　the　thousands。

BABYLONIAN　WRITING　While　the　civilization　of　the　Nile　Valley　was　developing　this　extraordinary　system　of　hieroglyphics；　the　inhabitants　of　Babylonia　were　practising　the　art　of　writing　along　somewhat　different　lines。　It　is　certain　that　they　began　with　picture…making；　and　that　in　due　course　they　advanced　to　the　development　of　the　syllabary；　but；　unlike　their　Egyptian　cousins；　the　men　of　Babylonia　saw　fit　to　discard　the　old　system　when　they　had　perfected　a　better　one。＇5＇　So　at　a　very　early　day　their　writingas　revealed　to　us　now　through　the　recent　excavationshad　ceased　to　have　that　pictorial　aspect　which　distinguishes　the　Egyptian　script。　What　had　originally　been　pictures　of　objectsfish；　houses；　and　the　likehad　come　to　be　represented　by　mere　aggregations　of　wedge…shaped　marks。　As　the　writing　of　the　Babvlonians　was　chiefly　inscribed　on　soft　clay；　the　adaptation　of　this　wedge…shaped　mark　in　lieu　of　an　ordinary　line　was　probably　a　mere　matter　of　convenience；　since　the　sharp…cornered　implement　used　in　making　the　inscription　naturally　made　a　wedge…shaped　impression　in　the　clay。　That；　however；　is　a　detail。　The　essential　thing　is　that　the　Babylonian　had　so　fully　analyzed　the　speech…sounds　that　he　felt　entire　confidence　in　them；　and　having　selected　a　sufficient　number　of　conventional　characterseach　made　up　of　wedge…shaped　linesto　represent　all　the　phonetic　sounds　of　his　language；　spelled　the　words　out　in　syllables　and　to　some　extent　dispensed　with　the　determinative　signs　which；　as　we　have　seen；　played　so　prominent　a　part　in　the　Egyptian　writing。　His　cousins　the　Assyrians　used　habitually　a　system　of　writing　the　foundation　of　which　was　an　elaborate　phonetic　syllabary；　a　system；　therefore；　far　removed　from　the　old　crude　pictograph；　and　in　some　respects　much　more　developed　than　the　complicated　Egyptian　method；　yet；　after　all；　a　system　that　stopped　short　of　perfection　by　the　wide　gap　that　separates　the　syllabary　from　the　true　alphabet。　A　brief　analysis　of　speech　sounds　will　aid　us　in　understanding　the　real　nature　of　the　syllabary。　Let　us　take　for　consideration　the　consonantal　sound　represented　by　the　letter　b。　A　moment's　consideration　will　make　it　clear　that　this　sound　enters　into　a　large　number　of　syllables。　There　are；　for　example；　at　least　twenty　vowel　sounds　in　the　English　language；　not　to　speak　of　certain　digraphs；　that　is　to　say；　each　of　the　important　vowels　has　from　two　to　six　sounds。　Each　of　these　vowel　sounds　may　enter　into　combination　with　the　b　sound　alone　to　form　three　syllables；　as　ba；　ab；　bal；　be；　eb；　bel；　etc。　Thus　there　are　at　least　sixty　b…sound　syllables。　But　this　is　not　the　end；　for　other　consonantal　sounds　may　be　associated　in　the　syllables　in　such　combinations　as　bad；　bed；　bar；　bark；　cab；　etc。　As　each　of　the　other　twenty　odd　consonantal　sounds　may　enter　into　similar　combinations；　it　is　obvious　that　there　are　several　hundreds　of　fundamental　syllables　to　be　taken　into　account　in　any　syllabic　system　of　writing。　For　each　of　these　syllables　a　symbol　must　be　set　aside　and　held　in　reserve　as　the　representative　of　that　particular　sound。　A　perfect　syllabary；　then；　would　require　some　hundred　or　more　of　symbols　to　represent　b　sounds　alone；　and　since　the　sounds　for　c；　d；　f；　and　the　rest　are　equally　varied；　the　entire　syllabary　would　run　into　thousands　of　characters；　almost　rivalling　in　complexity　the　Chinese　system。　But　in　practice　the　most　perfect　syllabary；　Such　as　that　of　the　Babylonians；　fell　short　of　this　degree　of　precision　through　ignoring　the　minor　shades　of　sound；　just　as　our　own　alphabet　is　content　to　represent　some　thirty　vowel　sounds　by　five　letters；　ignoring　the　fact　that　a；　for　example；　has　really　half　a　dozen　distinct　phonetic　values。　By　such　slurring　of　sounds　the　syllabary　is　reduced　far　below　its　ideal　limits；　yet　even　so　it　retains　three　or　four　hundred　characters。　In　point　of　fact；　such　a　work　as　Professor　Delitzsch's　Assyrian　Grammar＇6＇　presents　signs　for　three　hundred　and　thirty…four　syllables；　together　with　sundry　alternative　signs　and　determinatives　to　tax　the　memory　of　the　would…be　reader　of　Assyrian。　Let　us　take　for　example　a　few　of　the　b　sounds。　It　has　been　explained　that　the　basis　of　the　Assyrian　written　character　is　a　simple　wedge…shaped　or　arrow…head　mark。　Variously　repeated　and　grouped；　these　marks　make　up　the　syllabic　characters。　To　learn　some　four　hundred　such　signs　as　these　was　the　task　set；　as　an　equivalent　of　learning　the　a　b　c's；　to　any　primer　class　in　old　Assyria　in　the　long　generations　when　that　land　was　the　culture　Centre　of　the　world。　Nor　was　the　task　confined　to　the　natives　of　Babylonia　and　Assyria　alone。　About　the　fifteenth　century　B。C。；　and　probably　for　a　long　time　before　and　after　that　period；　the　exceedingly　complex　syllabary　of　the　Babylonians　was　the　official　means　of　communication　throughout　western　Asia　and　between　Asia　and　Egypt；　as　we　know　from　the　chance　discovery　of　a　collection　of　letters　belonging　to　the　Egyptian　king　Khun…aten；　preserved　at　Tel…el…Amarna。　In　the　time　of　Ramses　the　Great　the　Babylonian　writing　was　in　all　probability　considered　by　a　majority　of　the　most　highly　civilized　people　in　the　world　to　be　the　most　perfect　script　practicable。　Doubtless　the　average　scribe　of　the　time　did　not　in　the　least　realize　the　waste　of　energy　involved　in　his　labors；　or　ever　suspect　that　there　could　be　any　better　way　of　writing。　Yet　the　analysis　of　any　one　of　these　hundreds　of　syllables　into　its　component　phonetic　elementshad　any　one　been　genius　enough　to　make　such　analysis　ould　have　given　the　key　to　simpler　and　better　things。　But　such　an　analysis　was　very　hard　to　make；　as　the　sequel　shows。　Nor　is　the　utility　of　such　an　analysis　self…evident；　as　the　experience　of　the　Egyptians　proved。　The　vowel　sound　is　so　intimately　linked　with　the　consonantthe　con…sonant；　implying　this　intimate　relation　in　its　very　namethat　it　seemed　extremely　difficult　to　give　it　individual　recognition。　To　set　off　the　mere　labial　beginning　of　the　sound　by　itself；　and　to　recognize　it　as　an　all…essential　element　of　phonation；　was　the　feat　at　which　human　intelligence　so　long　balked。　The　germ　of　great　things　lay　in　that　analysis。　It　was　a　process　of　simplification；　and　all　art　development　is　from　the　complex　to　the　simple。　Unfortunately；　however；　it　did　not　seem　a　simplification；　but　rather　quite　the　reverse。　We　may　well　suppose　that　the　idea　of　wresting　from　the　syllabary　its　secret　of　consonants　and　vowels；　and　giving　to　each　consonantal　sound　a　distinct　sign；　seemed　a　most　cumbersome　and　embarrassing　complication　to　the　ancient　scholarsthat　is　to　say；　after　the　time　arrived　when　any　one　gave　such　an　idea　expression。　We　can　imagine　them　saying：　〃You　will　oblige　us　to　use　four　signs　instead　of　one　to　write　such　an　elementary　syllable　as　'bard；'　for　example。　Out　upon　such　endless　perplexity！〃　Nor　is　such　a　suggestion　purely　gratuitous；　for　it　is　an　historical　fact　that　the　old　syllabary　continued　to　be　used　in　Babylon　hundreds　of　years　after　the　alphabetical　system　had　be