the spirit of laws-第138节

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The　Italian　doctors　brought　the　law　of　Justinian　into　France；　where　they　had　only　the　Theodosian　code；＇298＇　because　Justinian's　laws　were　not　made　till　after　the　settlement　of　the　Barbarians　in　Gaul。＇299＇　This　law　met　with　some　opposition：　but　it　stood　its　ground　notwithstanding　the　excommunications　of　the　popes；　who　supported　their　own　canons。＇300＇　St　Louis　endeavoured　to　bring　it　into　repute　by　the　translations　of　Justinian's　works；　made　according　to　his　orders；　which　are　still　in　manuscript　in　our　libraries；　and　I　have　already　observed　that　they　made　great　use　of　them　in　compiling　the　Institutions。　Philip　the　Fair　ordered　the　Laws　of　Justinian　to　be　taught　only　as　written　reason　in　those　provinces　of　France　that　were　governed　by　customs；　and　they　were　adopted　as　a　law　in　those　provinces　where　the　Roman　law　had　been　received。＇301＇

I　have　already　noticed　that　the　manner　of　proceeding　by　judicial　combat　required　very　little　knowledge　in　the　judges；　disputes　were　decided　according　to　the　usage　of　each　place；　and　to　a　few　simple　customs　received　by　tradition。　In　Beaumanoir's　time　there　were　two　different　ways　of　administering　justice；＇302＇　in　some　places　they　tried　by　peers；＇303＇　in　others　by　bailiffs：　in　following　the　former　way；　the　peers　gave　judgment　according　to　the　practice　of　their　court；　in　the　latter；　it　was　the　prud'hommes；　or　old　men；　who　pointed　out　this　same　practice　to　the　bailiffs。＇304＇　This　whole　proceeding　required　neither　learning；　capacity；　nor　study。　But　when　the　dark　code　of　the　Institutions　made　its　appearance；　when　the　Roman　law　was　translated　and　taught　in　public　schools；　when　a　certain　art　of　procedure　and　jurisprudence　began　to　be　formed；　when　practitioners　and　civilians　were　seen　to　rise；　the　peers　and　the　prud'hommes　were　no　longer　capable　of　judging：　the　peers　began　to　withdraw　from　the　lords'　tribunals；　and　the　lords　were　very　little　inclined　to　assemble　them；　especially　as　the　new　form　of　trial；　instead　of　being　a　solemn　proceeding；　agreeable　to　the　nobility　and　interesting　to　a　warlike　people；　had　become　a　course　of　pleading　which　they　neither　understood；　nor　cared　to　learn。　The　custom　of　trying　by　peers　began　to　be　less　used；＇305＇　that　of　trying；　by　bailiffs　to　be　more　so；　the　bailiffs　did　not　give　judgment　themselves；＇306＇　they　summed　up　the　evidence　and　pronounced　the　judgment　of　the　prud'hommes；　but　the　latter　being　no　longer　capable　of　judging；　the　bailiffs　themselves　gave　judgment。

This　was　effected　so　much　the　easier；　as　they　had　before　their　eyes　the　practice　of　the　ecclesiastic　courts；　the　canon　and　new　civil　law　both　concurred　alike　to　abolish　the　peers。

Thus　fell　the　usage　hitherto　constantly　observed　in　the　French　monarchy；　that　judgment　should　not　be　pronounced　by　a　single　person；　as　may　be　seen　in　the　Salic　laws；　the　capitularies；　and　in　the　first　law…writers　under　the　third　race。＇307＇　The　contrary　abuse　which　obtains　only　in　local　jurisdictions　has　been　moderated；　and　in　some　measure　redressed；　by　introducing　in　many　places　a　judge's　deputy；　whom　he　consults；　and　who　represents　the　ancient　prud'hommes　by　the　obligation　the　judge　is　under　of　taking　two　graduates　in　cases　that　deserve　a　corporal　punishment；　and；　in　fine；　it　has　become　of　no　effect　by　the　extreme　facility　of　appeals。

43。　The　same　Subject　continued。　Thus　there　was　no　law　to　prohibit　the　lords　from　holding　their　courts　themselves；　none　to　abolish　the　functions　of　their　peers；　none　to　ordain　the　creation　of　bailiffs；　none　to　give　them　the　power　of　judging。　All　this　was　effected　insensibly；　and　by　the　very　necessity　of　the　thing。　The　knowledge　of　the　Roman　law；　the　decrees　of　the　courts；　the　new　digest　of　the　customs；　required　a　study　of　which　the　nobility　and　illiterate　people　were　incapable。

The　only　ordinance　we　have　upon　this　subject　is　that　which　obliged　the　lords　to　choose　their　bailiffs　。from　among　the　laity。＇308＇　It　is　a　mistake　to　look　upon　this　as　a　law　of　their　creation；　for　it　says　no　such　thing。　Besides；　the　intention　of　the　legislator　is　determined　by　the　reasons　assigned　in　the　ordinance：　〃to　the　end　that　the　bailiffs　may　be　punished　for　their　prevarications；　it　is　necessary　they　be　taken　from　the　order　of　the　laity。〃　The　immunities　of　the　clergy　in　those　days　are　very　well　known。

We　must　not　imagine　that　the　privileges　which　the　nobility　formerly　enjoyed；　and　of　which　they　are　now　divested；　were　taken　from　them　as　usurpations；　no；　many　of　those　privileges　were　lost　through　neglect；　and　others　were　given　up　because；　as　various　changes　had　been　introduced　in　the　course　of　so　many　ages；　they　were　inconsistent　with　those　changes。

44。　Of　the　Proof　by　Witnesses。　The　judges；　who　had　no　other　rule　to　go　by　than　the　usages；　inquired　very　often　by　witnesses　into　every　cause　that　was　brought　before　them。

The　usage　of　judicial　combats　beginning　to　decline；　they　made　their　inquests　in　writing。　But　a　verbal　proof　committed　to　writing　is　never　more　than　a　verbal　proof；　so　that　this　only　increased　the　expenses　of　law　proceedings。　Regulations　were　then　made　which　rendered　most　of　those　inquests　useless；＇309＇　public　registers　were　established；　which　ascertained　most　facts；　as　nobility；　age；　legitimacy；　and　marriage。　Writing　is　a　witness　very　hard　to　corrupt；　the　customs　were　therefore　reduced　to　writing。　All　this　is　very　reasonable；　it　is　much　easier　to　go　and　see　in　the　baptismal　register　whether　Peter　is　the　son　of　Paul　than　to　prove　this　fact　by　a　tedious　inquest。　When　there　are　a　number　of　usages　in　a　country；　it　is　much　easier　to　write　them　all　down　in　a　code；　than　to　oblige　individuals　to　prove　every　usage。　At　length　the　famous　ordinance　was　made　which　prohibited　the　admitting　of　the　proof　by　witnesses　for　a　debt　exceeding　an　hundred　livres；　except　there　was　the　beginning　of　a　proof　in　writing。

45。　Of　the　Customs　of　France。　France；　as　we　have　already　observed；　was　governed　by　written　customs；　and　the　particular　usages　of　each　lordship　constituted　the　civil　law。　Every　lordship　had　its　civil　law；　according　to　Beaumanoir；＇310＇　and　so　particular　a　law；　that　this　author；　who　is　looked　upon　as　a　luminary；　and　a　very　great　luminary　of　those　times；　says　he　does　not　believe　that　throughout　the　whole　kingdom　there　were　two　lordships　entirely　governed　by　the　same　law。

This　prodigious　diversity　had　a　twofold　origin。　With　regard　to　the　first；　the　reader　may　recollect　what　has　been　already　said　concerning　it　in　the　chapter　of　local　customs：＇311＇　and　as　to　the　second；　we　meet　with　it　in　the　different　events　of　legal　duels；　it　being　natural　that　a　continual　series　of　fortuitous　cases　must　have　been　productive　of　new　usages。

These　customs　were　preserved　in　the　memory　of　old　men；　but　insensibly　laws　or　written　customs　were　formed。

1。　At　the　commencement　of　the　third　race；　the　kings　gave　not　only　particular　charters；　but　likewise　general　ones；　in　the　manner　above　explained；　such　are　the　institutions　of　Philip　Augustus　and　those　made　by　St。　Louis。　In　like　manner　the　great　vassals；　in　concurrence　with　the　lords　who　held　under　them；　granted　certain　charters　or　establishments；　according　to　particular　circumstances　at　the　assizes　of　their　duchies　or　counties；　such　were　the　assize　of　Godfrey；　Count　of　Brittany；　on　the　division　of　the　nobles；　the　customs　of　Normandy；　granted　by　Duke　Ralph；　the　customs　of　Champagne；　given　by　King　Theobald；　the　laws　of　Simon；　Count　of　Montfort；　and　others。　This　produced　some　written　laws；　and　even　more　general　ones　than　those　they　had　before。

2。　At　the　beginning　of　the　third　race；　almost　all　the　common　people　were　bondmen；　but　there　were　several　reasons　which　afterwards　determined　the　kings　and　lords　to　enfranchise　them。

The　lords　by　enfranchising　their　bondmen　gave　them　property；　it　was　necessary　therefore　to　give　them　civil　laws；　in　order　to　regulate　the　disposal　of　that　property。　But　by　enfranchising　their　bondmen；　they　likewise　deprived　themselves　of　their　property；　there　was　a　necessity；　therefore；　of　regulating　the　rights　which　they　reserved　to　themselves；　as　an　equivalent　for　that　property。　Both　these　things　were　regulated　by　the　charters　of　enfranchisement；　those　charters　formed　a　part　of　our　customs；　and　this　part　was　reduced　to　writing。＇312＇

3。　Under　the　reign　of　St。　Louis；　and　of　the　succeeding　princes；　some　able　practitioners；　such　as　Défontaines；　Beaumanoir；　and　others；　committed　the　customs　of　their　bailiwicks　to　writing。　Their　design　was　rather　to　give　the　course　of　judicial　proceedings；　than　the　usages　of　their　time　in　respect　to　the　disposal　of　property。　But　the　whole　is　there；　and　though　these　particular　authors　have　no　authority　but　what　they　derive　from　the　truth　and　notoriety　of　the　things　they　speak　of；　yet　there　is　no　manner　of　doubt　but　that　they　contributed　greatly　to　the　restoration　of　our　ancient　French　jurisprudence。　Such　was　in　those　days　our　common　law。

We　have　come　now　to　the　grand　epoch。　Charles　VII　and　his　successors　caused　the　different　local　customs　throughout　the　kingdom　to　be　reduced　to　writing；　and　prescribed　set　forms　to　be　observed　to　their　digesting。　Now；　as　this　digesting　was　made　through　all　the　provinces；　and　as　people　came　from　each　lordship　to　declare　in　the　general　assembly　of　the　province　the　written　or　unwritten　usages　of　each