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twenty years the peasant; already proprietor of a fifth of the soil;

would; without the violent events of the Revolution; in any case

have attained the same degree of independence and well…being which

he was to achieve by passing through it。  On the other hand; through

the annual vote on the taxes; not only were waste and arbitrariness

in the employment of the public funds put a stop to; but also the

foundations of the parliamentary system of government were laid:

whoever holds the purse…strings is; or becomes; master of the rest;

henceforth in the maintenance or establishment of any service; the

assent of the States was to be necessary。  Now; in the three

Chambers which the three orders were thenceforward to form; there

were two in which the plebeians predominated。  Public opinion;

moreover; was on their side; while the King; the true constitutional

monarch; far from possessing the imperious inflexibility of a

despot; did not now possess the initiative of an ordinary person。

Thus the preponderance fell to the communes; and they could legally;

without any collision; execute multiply; and complete; with the aid

of the prince and through him; all useful reforms。'7'   This was

enough; for human society; like a living body; is seized with

convulsions when it is subjected to operations on too great a scale;

and these; although restricted; were probably all that France in

1789 could endure。  To equitably reorganize afresh the whole system

of direct and indirect taxation; to revise; recast; and transfer to

the frontiers the customs…tariffs; to suppress; through negotiations

and with indemnity; feudal and ecclesiastical claims; was an

operation of the greatest magnitude; and as complex as it was

delicate。  Things could be satisfactorily arranged only through

minute inquiries; verified calculations; prolonged essays; and

mutual concessions。  In England; in our day; a quarter of a century

has been required to bring about a lesser reform; the transformation

of tithes and manorial…rights; and time likewise was necessary for

our Assemblies to perfect their political education;'8' to get of

their theories; to learn; by contact with practical business; and in

the study of details; the distance which separates speculation from

practice; to discover that a new system of institutions works well

only through a new system of habits; and that to decree a new system

of habits is tantamount to attempting to build an old house。  

Such; however; is the work they undertake。  They reject the King's

proposals; the limited reforms; the gradual transformations。

According to them; it is their right and their duty to re…make

society from top to bottom。  Such is the command of pure reason;

which has discovered the Rights of Man and the conditions of the

Social Contract。





II



Nature of societies; and the principle of enduring constitutions。



Apply the Social Contract; if you like; but apply it only to those

for whom it was drawn up。  These were abstract beings; belonging

neither to a period nor to a country; perfect creatures hatched out

under the magic wand of a metaphysician。  They had as a matter of

fact come into existence by removing all the characteristics which

distinguish one man from another;'9' a Frenchman from a Papuan; a

modern Englishman from a Briton in the time of Caesar; and by

retaining only the part which is common to all。'10' The essence thus

obtained is a prodigiously meager one; an infinitely curtailed

extract of human nature; that is; in the phraseology of the day;



  〃A BEING WITH A DESIRE TO BE HAPPY AND THE FACULTY OF REASONING;〃



nothing more and nothing else。  After this pattern several million

individuals; all precisely alike; have been prepared while; through

a second simplification; as extraordinary as the first one; they are

all supposed to be free and all equal; without a past; without

kindred; without responsibility; without traditions; without

customs; like so many mathematical units; all separable and all

equivalent; and then it is imagined that; assembled together for the

first time; these proceed to make their primitive bargain。  From the

nature they are supposed to possess and the situation in which they

are placed; no difficulty is found in deducing their interests;

their wills; and the contract between them。  But if this contract

suits them; it does not follow that it suits others。  On the

contrary; if follows that is does not suit others; the inconvenience

becomes extreme on its being imposed on a living society; the

measure of that inconvenience will be the immensity of the distance

which divides a hollow abstraction; a philosophical phantom; an

empty insubstantial image from the real and complete man。



In any event we are not here considering a specimen; so reduced and

mutilated as to be only an outline of a human being; no; we are to

the contrary considering Frenchmen of the year 1789。  It is for them

alone that the constitution is being made: it is therefore they

alone who should be considered; they are manifestly men of a

particular species; having their peculiar temperament; their special

aptitudes; their own inclinations; their religion; their history;

all adding up into a mental and moral structure; hereditary and

deeply rooted; bequeathed to them by the indigenous stock; and to

which every great event; each political or literary phase for twenty

centuries; has added a growth; a transformation or a custom。  It is

like some tree of a unique species whose trunk; thickened by age;

preserves in its annual rings and in its knots; branches; and

curvatures; the deposits which its sap has made and the imprint of

the innumerable seasons through which it has passed。  Using the

philosophic definition; so vague and trite; to such an organism; is

only a puerile label teaching us nothing。    And all the more

because extreme diversities and inequalities show themselves on this

exceedingly elaborate and complicated background;  those of age;

education; faith; class and fortune; and these must be taken into

account; for these contribute to the formation of interests;

passions; and dispositions。  To take only the most important of

these; it is clear that; according to the average of human life;'11'

one…half of the population is composed of children; and; besides

this; one…half of the adults are women。  In every twenty inhabitants

eighteen are Catholic; of whom sixteen are believers; at least

through habit and tradition。  Twenty…five out of twenty…six millions

of Frenchmen cannot read; one million at the most being able to do

so; and in political matters only five or six hundred are competent。

As to the condition of each class; its ideas; its sentiments; its

kind and degree of culture; we should have to devote a large volume

to a mere sketch of them。



There is still another feature and the most important of all。  These

men who are so different from each other are far from being

independent; or from contracting together for the first time。  They

and their ancestors for eight hundred years form a national body;

and it is because they belong to this body that they live; multiply;

labor; make acquisitions; become enlightened and civilized; and

accumulate the vast heritage of comforts and intelligence which they

now enjoy。  Each in this community is like the cell of an organized

body; undoubtedly the body is only an accumulation of cells; but the

cell is born; subsists; develops and attains its individual ends

only be the healthy condition of the whole body。  Its chief

interest; accordingly; is the prosperity of the whole organism; and

the fundamental requirement of all the little fragmentary lives;

whether they know it or not; is the conservation of the great total

life in which they are comprised as musical notes in a concert。  

Not only is this a necessity for them; but it is also a duty。  We

are all born with a debt to our country; and this debt increases

while we grow up; it is with the assistance of our country; under

the protection of the law; upheld by the authorities; that our

ancestors and parents have given us life; property; and education。


Each person's faculties; ideas; attitudes; his or her entire moral

and physical being are the products to which the community has

contributed; directly or indirectly; at least as tutor and guardian。

By virtue of this the state is his creditor; just as a destitute

father is of his able…bodied son; it can lay claim to nourishment;

services; and; in all the force or resources of which he disposes;

it deservedly demands a share。   This he knows and feels; the

notion of country is deeply implanted within him; and when occasion

calls for it; it will show itself in ardent emotions; fueling steady

sacrifice and heroic effort。   Such are veritable Frenchmen; and

we at once see how different they are from the simple;

indistinguishable; detached monads which the philosophers insist on

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