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imperfect;   or   rather   an   erroneous;   notion   of   the   spirit   of   the   old   Latin 

ballads。 The Patricians; during more than a century after the expulsion of 

the Kings; held all the high military commands。 A Plebeian; even though; 

like Lucius Siccius; he were distinguished by his valor and knowledge of 

war;   could   serve   only   in   subordinate   posts。   A   minstrel;   therefore;   who 

wished   to   celebrate   the   early  triumphs   of   his   country;   could   hardly   take 

any but Patricians for his heroes。 The warriors who are mentioned in the 

two   preceding   lays;   Horatius;  Lartius;   Herminius; Aulus   Posthumius;             芺 

utius Elva; Sempronius Atratinus; Valerius Poplicola; were all members of 

the dominant order; and a poet who was singing their praises; whatever his 

own   political   opinions   might   be;   would   naturally   abstain   from   insulting 

the class to which they belonged; and from reflecting on the system which 

had placed such men at the head of the legions of the Commonwealth。 

     But there was a class of compositions in which the great families were 

by no means so courteously treated。 No parts of early Roman history are 

richer   with   poetical   coloring   than   those   which   relate   to   the   long   contest 

between   the   privileged   houses   and   the   commonality。   The   population   of 

Rome was; from a very early period; divided into hereditary castes; which; 

indeed; readily united to repel foreign enemies; but which regarded each 

other; during many years; with bitter animosity。 Between those castes there 

was   a   barrier   hardly   less   strong   than   that   which;   at   Venice;   parted   the 

members of the Great Council from their countrymen。 In some respects; 

indeed; the line which separated an Icilius or a Duilius from a Posthumius 

or a Fabius was even more deeply marked than that which separated the 

rower of gondola from a Contarini or a Morosini。 At Venice the distinction 

was   merely   civil。   At   Rome   it   was   both   civil   and   religious。   Among   the 

grievances       under    which     the   Plebeians     suffered;    three    were    felt  as 

peculiarly severe。 They were excluded from the highest magistracies; they 

were  excluded   from  all   share  in   the public lands;   and   they  were   ground 

down to the dust by partial and barbarous legislation touching pecuniary 



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contracts。 The ruling class in Rome was a moneyed class; and it made and 

administered   the   laws   with   a   view   solely   to   its   own   interest。   Thus   the 

relation   between   lender   and   borrower   was   mixed   up   with   the   relation 

between sovereign and subject。 The great men held a large portion of the 

community in dependence by means of advances at enormous usury。 The 

law of debt; framed by creditors; and for the protection of creditors; was 

the host horrible that has   ever been known   among men。 The liberty  and 

even the life of the insolvent were at the mercy of the Patrician money… 

lenders。 Children often became slaves in consequence of the misfortunes 

of their parents。 The debtor was imprisoned; not in a public jail under the 

care     of  impartial     public    functionaries;     but   in   a  private    workhouse 

belonging      to  the   creditor。   Frightful    stories   were   told   respecting    these 

dungeons。 It was said that torture and brutal violation were common; that 

tight stocks; heavy chains; scanty measures of food; were used to punish 

wretches   guilty   of   nothing   but   poverty;   and   that   brave   soldiers;   whose 

breasts were covered with honorable scars; were often marked still more 

deeply on the back by the scourges of high…born usurers。 

     The Plebeians were; however; not wholly without constitutional rights。 

From  an   early  period   they  had   been   admitted   to   some   share   of   political 

power。 They were enrolled each in his century; and were allowed a share; 

considerable   though   not   proportioned   to   their   numerical   strength;   in   the 

disposal     of   those    high    dignities   from     which    they    were    themselves 

excluded。 Thus their position bore some resemblance to that of the Irish 

Catholics   during   the   interval   between   the   year   1792   and   the   year   1829。 

The     Plebeians    had    also  the   privilege    of  annually     appointing     officers; 

named      Tribunes;     who    had   no   active   share   in  the   government       of  the 

commonwealth; but who; by degree; acquired a power formidable even to 

the   ablest   and   most   resolute   Consuls   and   Dictators。   The   person   of   the 

Tribune was inviolable; and; though he could directly effect little; he could 

obstruct everything。 

     During more than a century after the institution of the Tribuneship; the 

Commons   struggled   manfully   for   the   removal   of   the   grievances   under 

which they labored; and; in spite of many checks and reverses; succeeded 

in wringing concession after concession from the stubborn aristocracy。 At 



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length   in    the   year  of   the  city   378;   both   parties   mustered     their  whole 

strength for their last and most desperate conflict。 The popular and active 

Tribune;   Caius   Licinius;   proposed   the   three   memorable   laws   which   are 

called   by   his   name;   and   which   were   intended   to   redress   the   three   great 

evils of which the Plebeians complained。 He was supported; with eminent 

ability    and    firmness;    by   his   colleague;    Lucius     Sextius。    The    struggle 

appears to have been the fiercest that every in any community terminated 

without an appeal to arms。 If such a contest had raged in any Greek city; 

the   streets   would   have   run   with   blood。   But;   even   in   the   paroxysms   of 

faction;    the   Roman      retained    his  gravity;   his   respect    for  law;   and   his 

tenderness for the lives of his fellow citizens。 Year after year Licinius and 

Sextius were re 雔 ected Tribunes。 Year after year; if the narrative which 

has come down to us is to be trusted; they continued to exert; to the full 

extent;   their   power   of   stopping   the   whole   machine   of   government。   No 

curule magistrates could be chosen; no military muster could be held。 We 

know too little of the state of Rome in those days to be able to conjecture 

how;   during   that   long   anarchy;   the   peace   was   kept;   and   ordinary   justice 

administered between man and man。 The animosity of both parties rose to 

the   greatest   height。   The   excitement;   we   may   well   suppose;   would   have 

been     peculiarly    intense    at  the   annual    election    of   Tribunes。    On    such 

occasions there can be little doubt that the great families did all that could 

be done; by threats and caresses; to break the union of the Plebeians。 That 

union; however; proved indissoluble。 At length the good cause triumphed。 

The   Licinian   laws   were   carried。   Lucius   Sextius   was   the   first   Plebeian 

Consul; Caius Licinius the third。 

     The  results   of this   great   change  were   singularly  happy  and   glorious。 

Two      centuries     of    prosperity;     harmony;      and    victory     followed      the 

reconciliation      of  the   orders。   Men     who    remembered       Rome     engaged     in 

waging petty wars almost within sight of the Capitol lived to see her the 

mistress of Italy。 While the disabilities of the Plebeians continued; she was 

scarcely able to maintain her ground against the Volscians and Hernicans。 

When   those   disabilities   were   removed;   she   rapidly   became   more   than   a 

match for Carthage and Macedon。 

     During the great Licinian contest the Plebeian poets were; doubtless; 



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not   silent。  Even   in   modern times   songs have   been   by  no   means   without 

influence on public affairs; and we may therefore infer that; in a society 

where   printing   was   unknown   and   where   books   were   rare;   a   pathetic   or 

humorous   party…ballad   must   have   produced   effects   such   as   we   can   but 

faintly conceive。 It is certain that satirical poems were common at Rome 

from a very early period。 The rustics; who lived at a distance from the seat 

of government; and took little part in the strife of factions; gave vent   to 

their petty local animosities in coarse Fescennine verse。 The lampoons of 

the city 

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