the evolution of modern medicine(现代医药的演变)-第36节
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Bible says that Joshua commanded the Sun to stand still； not the Earth。
The scholarly Melanchthon； himself an astronomer； thought the book so
godless that he recommended its suppression （Dannemann； Grundriss）。
The church was too much involved in the Ptolemaic system to accept any
change and it was not until 1822 that the works of Copernicus were
removed from the Index。
VESALIUS
THE same year； 1542； saw a very different picture in the far…famed
city of Padua； 〃nursery of the arts。〃 The central figure was a man not yet in
the prime of life； and justly full of its pride； as you may see from his
portrait。 Like Aristotle and Hippocrates cradled and nurtured in an
AEsculapian family； Vesalius was from his childhood a student of nature；
and was now a wandering scholar； far from his Belgian home。 But in Italy
he had found what neither Louvain nor Paris could give； freedom in his
studies and golden opportunities for research in anatomy。 What an
impression he must have made on the student body at Padua may be
judged from the fact that shortly after his graduation in December； 1537；
at the age of twenty…four； he was elected to the chair of anatomy and
surgery。 Two things favored himan insatiate desire to see and handle for
himself the parts of the human frame； and an opportunity； such as had
never before been offered to the teacher； to obtain material for the study of
human anatomy。 Learned with all the learning of the Grecians and of the
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Arabians； Vesalius grasped； as no modern before him had done； the
cardinal fact that to know the human machine and its working； it is
necessary first to know its partsits fabric。
To appreciate the work of this great man we must go back in a brief
review of the growth of the study of anatomy。
Among the Greeks only the Alexandrians knew human anatomy。 What
their knowledge was we know at second hand； but the evidence is plain
that they knew a great deal。 Galen's anatomy was first…class and was based
on the Alexandrians and on his studies of the ape and the pig。 We have
already noted how much superior was his osteology to that of Mundinus。
Between the Alexandrians and the early days of the School of Salernum
we have no record of systematic dissections of the human body。 It is even
doubtful if these were permitted at Salernum。 Neuburger states that the
instructions of Frederick II as to dissections were merely nominal。
How atrocious was the anatomy of the early Middle Ages may be
gathered from the cuts in the works of Henri de Mondeville。 In the
Bodleian Library is a remarkable Latin anatomical treatise of the late
thirteenth century； of English provenance； one illustration from which will
suffice to show the ignorance of the author。 Mundinus of Bologna； one of
the first men in the Middle Ages to study anatomy from the subject； was
under the strong domination of the Arabians； from whom he appears to
have received a very imperfect Galenic anatomy。 From this date we meet
with occasional dissections at various schools； but we have seen that in the
elaborate curriculum of the University of Padua in the middle of the
fifteenth century there was no provision for the study of the subject。 Even
well into the sixteenth century dissections were not common； and the old
practice was followed of holding a professorial discourse； while the
butcher； or barber surgeon； opened the cavities of the body。 A member of a
famous Basel family of physicians； Felix Plater； has left us in his
autobiography＇19＇ details of the dissections he witnessed at Montpellier
between November 14； 1552； and January 10； 1557； only eleven in
number。 How difficult it was at that time to get subjects is shown by the
risks they ran in 〃body…snatching〃 expeditions； of which he records three。
＇19＇ There is no work from which we can get a better idea of the life of
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the sixteenth…century medical student and of the style of education and of
the degree ceremonies； etc。 Cumston has given an excellent summary of it
（Johns Hopkins Hospital Bulletin； 1912； XXIII； 105…113）。
And now came the real maker of modern anatomy。 Andreas Vesalius
had a good start in life。 Of a family long associated with the profession；
his father occupied the position of apothecary to Charles V； whom he
accompanied on his journeys and campaigns。 Trained at Louvain； he had；
from his earliest youth； an ardent desire to dissect； and cut up mice and
rats； and even cats and dogs。 To Paris； the strong school of the period； he
went in 1533； and studied under two men of great renown； Jacob Sylvius
and Guinterius。 Both were strong Galenists and regarded the Master as an
infallible authority。 He had as a fellow prosector； under the latter； the
unfortunate Servetus。 The story of his troubles and trials in getting bones
and subjects you may read in Roth's 〃Life。〃＇20＇ Many interesting
biographical details are also to be found in his own writings。 He returned
for a time to Louvain； and here he published his first book； a commentary
on the 〃Almansor〃 of Rhazes； in 1537。
＇20＇ M。 Roth： Andreas Vesalius Bruxellensis； Berlin； 1892。 An
excellent account of Vesalius and his contemporaries is given by James
Moores Ball in his superbly printed Andreas Vesalius； the Reformer of
Anatomy； St。 Louis； 1910。
Finding it difficult； either in Paris or Louvain； to pursue his anatomical
studies； he decided to go to Italy where； at Venice and Padua； the
opportunities were greater。 At Venice； he attended the practice of a
hospital （now a barracks） which was in charge of the Theatiner Order。 I
show you a photograph of the building taken last year。 And here a strange
destiny brought two men together。 In 1537； another pilgrim was working
in Venice waiting to be joined by his six disciples。 After long years of
probation； Ignatius Loyola was ready to start on the conquest of a very
different world。 Devoted to the sick and to the poor； he attached himself to
the Theatiner Order； and in the wards of the hospital and the quadrangle；
the fiery； dark…eyed； little Basque must frequently have come into contact
with the sturdy young Belgian； busy with his clinical studies and his
anatomy。 Both were to achieve phenomenal successthe one in a few
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years to revolutionize anatomy； the other within twenty years to be the
controller of universities； the counsellor of kings； and the founder of the
most famous order in the Roman Catholic Church。 It was in this hospital
that Vesalius made observations on the China…root； on which he published
a monograph in 1546。 The Paduan School was close to Venice and
associated with it； so that the young student had probably many
opportunities of going to and fro。 On the sixth of December； 1537； before
he had reached his twenty…fourth year and shortly after taking his degree；
he was elected to the chair of surgery and anatomy at Padua。
The task Vesalius set himself to accomplish was to give an accurate
description of all the parts of the human body； with proper illustrations。 He
must have had abundant material； more； probably； than any teacher before
him had ever had at his disposal。 We do not know where he conducted his
dissections； as the old amphitheatre has disappeared； but it must have been
very different from the tiny one put up by his successor； Fabricius； in 1594。
Possibly it was only a temporary building； for he says in the second
edition of the 〃Fabrica〃 that he had a splendid lecture theatre which
accommodated more tha
