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ndently¡¡and¡¡without¡¡ever¡¡having¡¡heard¡¡of¡¡the¡¡previous¡¡discovery¡¡by¡¡Priestley¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡this¡¡book£»¡¡also£»¡¡he¡¡shows¡¡that¡¡air¡¡is¡¡composed¡¡chiefly¡¡of¡¡oxygen¡¡and¡¡nitrogen¡¡gas¡£

Early¡¡in¡¡his¡¡experimental¡¡career¡¡Scheele¡¡undertook¡¡the¡¡solution¡¡of¡¡the¡¡composition¡¡of¡¡black¡¡oxide¡¡of¡¡manganese£»¡¡a¡¡substance¡¡that¡¡had¡¡long¡¡puzzled¡¡the¡¡chemists¡£¡¡¡¡He¡¡not¡¡only¡¡succeeded¡¡in¡¡this£»¡¡but¡¡incidentally¡¡in¡¡the¡¡course¡¡of¡¡this¡¡series¡¡of¡¡experiments¡¡he¡¡discovered¡¡oxygen£»¡¡baryta£»¡¡and¡¡chlorine£»¡¡the¡¡last¡¡of¡¡far¡¡greater¡¡importance£»¡¡at¡¡least¡¡commercially£»¡¡than¡¡the¡¡real¡¡object¡¡of¡¡his¡¡search¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡speaking¡¡of¡¡the¡¡experiment¡¡in¡¡which¡¡the¡¡discovery¡¡was¡¡made¡¡he¡¡says£º

¡¨When¡¡marine¡¡£¨hydrochloric£©¡¡acid¡¡stood¡¡over¡¡manganese¡¡in¡¡the¡¡cold¡¡it¡¡acquired¡¡a¡¡dark¡¡reddish¡­brown¡¡color¡£¡¡As¡¡manganese¡¡does¡¡not¡¡give¡¡any¡¡colorless¡¡solution¡¡without¡¡uniting¡¡with¡¡phlogiston¡¡£§probably¡¡meaning¡¡hydrogen£§£»¡¡it¡¡follows¡¡that¡¡marine¡¡acid¡¡can¡¡dissolve¡¡it¡¡without¡¡this¡¡principle¡£¡¡But¡¡such¡¡a¡¡solution¡¡has¡¡a¡¡blue¡¡or¡¡red¡¡color¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡color¡¡is¡¡here¡¡more¡¡brown¡¡than¡¡red£»¡¡the¡¡reason¡¡being¡¡that¡¡the¡¡very¡¡finest¡¡portions¡¡of¡¡the¡¡manganese£»¡¡which¡¡do¡¡not¡¡sink¡¡so¡¡easily£»¡¡swim¡¡in¡¡the¡¡red¡¡solution£»¡¡for¡¡without¡¡these¡¡fine¡¡particles¡¡the¡¡solution¡¡is¡¡red£»¡¡and¡¡red¡¡mixed¡¡with¡¡black¡¡is¡¡brown¡£¡¡The¡¡manganese¡¡has¡¡here¡¡attached¡¡itself¡¡so¡¡loosely¡¡to¡¡acidum¡¡salis¡¡that¡¡the¡¡water¡¡can¡¡precipitate¡¡it£»¡¡and¡¡this¡¡precipitate¡¡behaves¡¡like¡¡ordinary¡¡manganese¡£¡¡¡¡When£»¡¡now£»¡¡the¡¡mixture¡¡of¡¡manganese¡¡and¡¡spiritus¡¡salis¡¡was¡¡set¡¡to¡¡digest£»¡¡there¡¡arose¡¡an¡¡effervescence¡¡and¡¡smell¡¡of¡¡aqua¡¡regis¡£¡¨£§6£§

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Commercially¡¡this¡¡discovery¡¡of¡¡chlorine¡¡was¡¡of¡¡enormous¡¡importance£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡practical¡¡application¡¡of¡¡this¡¡new¡¡chemical¡¡in¡¡bleaching¡¡cloth¡¡soon¡¡supplanted¡¡the£»¡¡old¡¡process¡¡of¡¡croftingthat¡¡is£»¡¡bleaching¡¡by¡¡spreading¡¡the¡¡cloth¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡grass¡£¡¡But¡¡although¡¡Scheele¡¡first¡¡pointed¡¡out¡¡the¡¡bleaching¡¡quality¡¡of¡¡his¡¡newly¡¡discovered¡¡gas£»¡¡it¡¡was¡¡the¡¡French¡¡savant£»¡¡Berthollet£»¡¡who£»¡¡acting¡¡upon¡¡Scheele's¡¡discovery¡¡that¡¡the¡¡new¡¡gas¡¡would¡¡decolorize¡¡vegetables¡¡and¡¡flowers£»¡¡was¡¡led¡¡to¡¡suspect¡¡that¡¡this¡¡property¡¡might¡¡be¡¡turned¡¡to¡¡account¡¡in¡¡destroying¡¡the¡¡color¡¡of¡¡cloth¡£¡¡In¡¡1785¡¡he¡¡read¡¡a¡¡paper¡¡before¡¡the¡¡Academy¡¡of¡¡Sciences¡¡of¡¡Paris£»¡¡in¡¡which¡¡he¡¡showed¡¡that¡¡bleaching¡¡by¡¡chlorine¡¡was¡¡entirely¡¡satisfactory£»¡¡the¡¡color¡¡but¡¡not¡¡the¡¡substance¡¡of¡¡the¡¡cloth¡¡being¡¡affected¡£¡¡He¡¡had¡¡experimented¡¡previously¡¡and¡¡found¡¡that¡¡the¡¡chlorine¡¡gas¡¡was¡¡soluble¡¡in¡¡water¡¡and¡¡could¡¡thus¡¡be¡¡made¡¡practically¡¡available¡¡for¡¡bleaching¡¡purposes¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡1786¡¡James¡¡Watt¡¡examined¡¡specimens¡¡of¡¡the¡¡bleached¡¡cloth¡¡made¡¡by¡¡Berthollet£»¡¡and¡¡upon¡¡his¡¡return¡¡to¡¡England¡¡first¡¡instituted¡¡the¡¡process¡¡of¡¡practical¡¡bleaching¡£¡¡His¡¡process£»¡¡however£»¡¡was¡¡not¡¡entirely¡¡satisfactory£»¡¡and£»¡¡after¡¡undergoing¡¡various¡¡modifications¡¡and¡¡improvements£»¡¡it¡¡was¡¡finally¡¡made¡¡thoroughly¡¡practicable¡¡by¡¡Mr¡£¡¡Tennant£»¡¡who¡¡hit¡¡upon¡¡a¡¡compound¡¡of¡¡chlorine¡¡and¡¡limethe¡¡chloride¡¡of¡¡limewhich¡¡was¡¡a¡¡comparatively¡¡cheap¡¡chemical¡¡product£»¡¡and¡¡answered¡¡the¡¡purpose¡¡better¡¡even¡¡than¡¡chlorine¡¡itself¡£

To¡¡appreciate¡¡how¡¡momentous¡¡this¡¡discovery¡¡was¡¡to¡¡cloth¡¡manufacturers£»¡¡it¡¡should¡¡be¡¡remembered¡¡that¡¡the¡¡old¡¡process¡¡of¡¡bleaching¡¡consumed¡¡an¡¡entire¡¡summer¡¡for¡¡the¡¡whitening¡¡of¡¡a¡¡single¡¡piece¡¡of¡¡linen£»¡¡the¡¡new¡¡process¡¡reduced¡¡the¡¡period¡¡to¡¡a¡¡few¡¡hours¡£¡¡¡¡To¡¡be¡¡sure£»¡¡lime¡¡had¡¡been¡¡used¡¡with¡¡fair¡¡success¡¡previous¡¡to¡¡Tennant's¡¡discovery£»¡¡but¡¡successful¡¡and¡¡practical¡¡bleaching¡¡by¡¡a¡¡solution¡¡of¡¡chloride¡¡of¡¡lime¡¡was¡¡first¡¡made¡¡possible¡¡by¡¡him¡¡and¡¡through¡¡Scheele's¡¡discovery¡¡of¡¡chlorine¡£

Until¡¡the¡¡time¡¡of¡¡Scheele¡¡the¡¡great¡¡subject¡¡of¡¡organic¡¡chemistry¡¡had¡¡remained¡¡practically¡¡unexplored£»¡¡but¡¡under¡¡the¡¡touch¡¡of¡¡his¡¡marvellous¡¡inventive¡¡genius¡¡new¡¡methods¡¡of¡¡isolating¡¡and¡¡studying¡¡animal¡¡and¡¡vegetable¡¡products¡¡were¡¡introduced£»¡¡and¡¡a¡¡large¡¡number¡¡of¡¡acids¡¡and¡¡other¡¡organic¡¡compounds¡¡prepared¡¡that¡¡had¡¡been¡¡hitherto¡¡unknown¡£¡¡¡¡His¡¡explanations¡¡of¡¡chemical¡¡phenomena¡¡were¡¡based¡¡on¡¡the¡¡phlogiston¡¡theory£»¡¡in¡¡which£»¡¡like¡¡Priestley£»¡¡he¡¡always£»¡¡believed¡£¡¡¡¡Although¡¡in¡¡error¡¡in¡¡this¡¡respect£»¡¡he¡¡was£»¡¡nevertheless£»¡¡able¡¡to¡¡make¡¡his¡¡discoveries¡¡with¡¡extremely¡¡accurate¡¡interpretations¡£¡¡A¡¡brief¡¡epitome¡¡of¡¡the¡¡list¡¡of¡¡some¡¡of¡¡his¡¡more¡¡important¡¡discoveries¡¡conveys¡¡some¡¡idea£»¡¡of¡¡his¡¡fertility¡¡of¡¡mind¡¡as¡¡well¡¡as¡¡his¡¡industry¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡1780¡¡he¡¡discovered¡¡lactic¡¡acid£»£§7£§¡¡and¡¡showed¡¡that¡¡it¡¡was¡¡the¡¡substance¡¡that¡¡caused¡¡the¡¡acidity¡¡of¡¡sour¡¡milk£»¡¡and¡¡in¡¡the¡¡same¡¡year¡¡he¡¡discovered¡¡mucic¡¡acid¡£¡¡Next¡¡followed¡¡the¡¡discovery¡¡of¡¡tungstic¡¡acid£»¡¡and¡¡in¡¡1783¡¡he¡¡added¡¡to¡¡his¡¡list¡¡of¡¡useful¡¡discoveries¡¡that¡¡of¡¡glycerine¡£¡¡Then¡¡in¡¡rapid¡¡succession¡¡came¡¡his¡¡announcements¡¡of¡¡the¡¡new¡¡vegetable¡¡products¡¡citric£»¡¡malic£»¡¡oxalic£»¡¡and¡¡gallic¡¡acids¡£¡¡Scheele¡¡not¡¡only¡¡made¡¡the¡¡discoveries£»¡¡but¡¡told¡¡the¡¡world¡¡how¡¡he¡¡had¡¡made¡¡themhow¡¡any¡¡chemist¡¡might¡¡have¡¡made¡¡them¡¡if¡¡he¡¡chosefor¡¡he¡¡never¡¡considered¡¡that¡¡he¡¡had¡¡really¡¡discovered¡¡any¡¡substance¡¡until¡¡he¡¡had¡¡made¡¡it£»¡¡decomposed¡¡it£»¡¡and¡¡made¡¡it¡¡again¡£

His¡¡experiments¡¡on¡¡Prussian¡¡blue¡¡are¡¡most¡¡interesting£»¡¡not¡¡only¡¡because¡¡of¡¡the¡¡enormous¡¡amount¡¡of¡¡work¡¡involved¡¡and¡¡the¡¡skill¡¡he¡¡displayed¡¡in¡¡his¡¡experiments£»¡¡but¡¡because¡¡all¡¡the¡¡time¡¡the¡¡chemist¡¡was¡¡handling£»¡¡smelling£»¡¡and¡¡even¡¡tasting¡¡a¡¡compound¡¡of¡¡one¡¡of¡¡the¡¡most¡¡deadly¡¡poisons£»¡¡ignorant¡¡of¡¡the¡¡fact¡¡that¡¡the¡¡substance¡¡was¡¡a¡¡dangerous¡¡one¡¡to¡¡handle¡£¡¡His¡¡escape¡¡from¡¡injury¡¡seems¡¡almost¡¡miraculous£»¡¡for¡¡his¡¡experiments£»¡¡which¡¡were¡¡most¡¡elaborate£»¡¡extended¡¡over¡¡a¡¡considerable¡¡period¡¡of¡¡time£»¡¡during¡¡which¡¡he¡¡seems¡¡to¡¡have¡¡handled¡¡this¡¡chemical¡¡with¡¡impunity¡£

While¡¡only¡¡forty¡¡years¡¡of¡¡age¡¡and¡¡just¡¡at¡¡the¡¡zenith¡¡of¡¡his¡¡fame£»¡¡Scheele¡¡was¡¡stricken¡¡by¡¡a¡¡fatal¡¡illness£»¡¡probably¡¡induced¡¡by¡¡his¡¡ceaseless¡¡labor¡¡and¡¡exposure¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡is¡¡gratifying¡¡to¡¡know£»¡¡however£»¡¡that¡¡during¡¡the¡¡last¡¡eight¡¡or¡¡nine¡¡years¡¡of¡¡his¡¡life¡¡he¡¡had¡¡been¡¡less¡¡bound¡¡down¡¡by¡¡pecuniary¡¡difficulties¡¡than¡¡before£»¡¡as¡¡Bergman¡¡had¡¡obtained¡¡for¡¡him¡¡an¡¡annual¡¡grant¡¡from¡¡the¡¡Academy¡£¡¡¡¡But¡¡it¡¡was¡¡characteristic¡¡of¡¡the¡¡man¡¡that£»¡¡while¡¡devoting¡¡one¡­sixth¡¡of¡¡the¡¡amount¡¡of¡¡this¡¡grant¡¡to¡¡his¡¡personal¡¡wants£»¡¡the¡¡remaining¡¡five¡­sixths¡¡was¡¡devoted¡¡to¡¡the¡¡expense¡¡of¡¡his¡¡experiments¡£


LAVOISIER¡¡AND¡¡THE¡¡FOUNDATION¡¡OF¡¡MODERN¡¡CHEMISTRY

The¡¡time¡¡was¡¡ripe¡¡for¡¡formulating¡¡the¡¡correct¡¡theory¡¡of¡¡chemical¡¡composition£º¡¡it¡¡needed¡¡but¡¡the¡¡master¡¡hand¡¡to¡¡mould¡¡the¡¡materials¡¡into¡¡the¡¡proper¡¡shape¡£¡¡The¡¡discoveries¡¡in¡¡chemistry¡¡during¡¡the¡¡eighteenth¡¡century¡¡had¡¡been¡¡far¡­reaching¡¡and¡¡revolutionary¡¡in¡¡character¡£¡¡¡¡A¡¡brief¡¡review¡¡of¡¡these¡¡discoveries¡¡shows¡¡how¡¡completely¡¡they¡¡had¡¡subverted¡¡the¡¡old¡¡ideas¡¡of¡¡chemical¡¡elements¡¡and¡¡chemical¡¡compounds¡£¡¡¡¡Of¡¡the¡¡four¡¡substances¡¡earth£»¡¡air£»¡¡fire£»¡¡and¡¡water£»¡¡for¡¡many¡¡centuries¡¡believed¡¡to¡¡be¡¡elementary¡¡bodies£»¡¡not¡¡one¡¡has¡¡stood¡¡the¡¡test¡¡of¡¡the¡¡eighteenth¡­century¡¡chemists¡£¡¡Earth¡¡had¡¡long¡¡since¡¡ceased¡¡to¡¡be¡¡regarded¡¡as¡¡an¡¡element£»¡¡and¡¡water¡¡and¡¡air¡¡had¡¡suffered¡¡the¡¡same¡¡fate¡¡in¡¡this¡¡century¡£¡¡¡¡And¡¡now¡¡at¡¡last¡¡fire¡¡itself£»¡¡the¡¡last¡¡of¡¡the¡¡four¡¡¡¨elements¡¨¡¡and¡¡the¡¡keystone¡¡to¡¡the¡¡phlogiston¡¡arch£»¡¡was¡¡shown¡¡to¡¡be¡¡nothing¡¡more¡¡than¡¡one¡¡of¡¡the¡¡manifestations¡¡of¡¡the¡¡new¡¡element£»¡¡oxygen£»¡¡and¡¡not¡¡¡¨phlogiston¡¨¡¡or¡¡any¡¡other¡¡intangible¡¡substance¡£

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The¡¡attitude¡¡of¡¡the¡¡mother¡­countries¡¡towards¡¡these¡¡illustrious¡¡sons¡¡is¡¡an¡¡interesting¡¡piece¡¡of¡¡history¡£¡¡¡¡Sweden¡¡honored¡¡and¡¡rewarded¡¡Scheele¡¡and¡¡Bergman¡¡for¡¡their¡¡efforts£»¡¡England¡¡received¡¡the¡¡intellectuality¡¡of¡¡Cavendish¡¡with¡¡less¡¡appreciation¡¡than¡¡the¡¡Continent£»¡¡and¡¡a¡¡fanatical¡¡mob¡¡drove¡¡Priestley¡¡out¡¡of¡¡the¡¡country£»¡¡while¡¡France£»¡¡by¡¡sending¡¡Lavoisier¡¡to¡¡the¡¡guillotine£»¡¡demonstrated¡¡how¡¡dangerous¡¡it¡¡was£»¡¡at¡¡that¡¡time¡¡at¡¡least£»¡¡for¡¡an¡¡intelligent¡¡Frenchman¡¡to¡¡serve¡¡his¡¡fellowman¡¡and¡¡his¡¡country¡¡well¡£

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Lavoisier¡¡was¡¡born¡¡in¡¡Paris£»¡¡and¡¡being¡¡the¡¡son¡¡of¡¡an¡¡opulent¡¡family£»¡¡was¡¡educated¡¡under¡¡the¡¡instruction¡¡of¡¡the¡¡best¡¡teachers¡¡of¡¡the¡¡day¡£¡¡With¡¡Lacaille¡¡he¡¡studied¡¡mathematics¡¡and¡¡astronomy£»¡¡with¡¡Jussieu£»¡¡botany£»¡¡and£»¡¡finally£»¡¡chemistry¡¡under¡¡Rouelle¡£¡¡¡¡His¡¡first¡¡work¡¡of¡¡importance¡¡was¡¡a¡¡paper¡¡on¡¡the¡¡practical¡¡illumination¡¡of¡¡the¡¡streets¡¡of¡¡Paris£»¡¡for¡¡which¡¡a¡¡prize¡¡had¡¡been¡¡offered¡¡by¡¡M¡£¡¡de¡¡Sartine£»¡¡the¡¡chief¡¡of¡¡police¡£¡¡This¡¡prize¡¡was¡¡not¡¡awarded¡¡

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