a history of science-4-第33节

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he　soul；　and　convulsions　and　spasmodic　movements　in　disease　are　due；　to　the；　same　cause。　　Stagnation　of　the；　blood　was　supposed　to　be　a　fertile　cause　of　diseases；　and　such　diseases　were　supposed　to　arise　mostly　from　〃plethora〃an　all…important　element　in　Stahl's　therapeutics。　　By　many　this　theory　is　regarded　as　an　attempt　on　the　part　of　the　pious　Stahl　to　reconcile　medicine　and　theology　in　a　way　satisfactory　to　both　physicians　and　theologians；　but；　like　many　conciliatory　attempts；　it　was　violently　opposed　by　both　doctors　and　ministers。

A　belief　in　such　a　theory　would　lead　naturally　to　simplicity　in　therapeutics；　and　in　this　respect　at　least　Stahl　was　consistent。　Since　the　soul　knew　more　about　the　body　than　any　physician　could　know；　Stahl　conceived　that　it　would　be　a　hinderance　rather　than　a　help　for　the　physician　to　interfere　with　complicated　doses　of　medicine。　As　he　advanced　in　age　this　view　of　the　administration　of　drugs　grew　upon　him；　until　after　rejecting　quinine；　and　finally　opium；　he　at　last　used　only　salt　and　water　in　treating　his　patients。　From　this　last　we　may　judge　that　his　〃system；〃　if　not　doing　much　good；　was　at　least　doing　little　harm。

The　theory　of　the　Vitalists　was　closely　allied　to　that　of　the　Animists；　and　its　most　important　representative；　Paul　Joseph　Barthez；　was　a　cultured　and　eager　scientist。　　After　an　eventful　and　varied　career　as　physician；　soldier；　editor；　lawyer；　and　philosopher　in　turn；　he　finally　returned　to　the　field　of　medicine；　was　made　consulting　physician　by　Napoleon　in　1802；　and　died　in　Paris　four　years　later。

The　theory　that　he　championed　was　based　on　the　assumption　that　there　was　a　〃vital　principle；〃　the　nature　of　which　was　unknown；　but　which　differed　from　the　thinking　mind；　and　was　the　cause　of　the　phenomena　of　life。　This　〃vital　principle〃　differed　from　the　soul；　and　was　not　exhibited　in　human　beings　alone；　but　even　in　animals　and　plants。　　This　force；　or　whatever　it　might　be　called；　was　supposed　to　be　present　everywhere　in　the　body；　and　all　diseases　were　the　results　of　it。

The　theory　of　the　Organicists；　like　that　of　the　Animists　and　Vitalists；　agreed　with　the　other　two　that　vital　activity　could　not　be　explained　by　the　laws　of　physics　and　chemistry；　but；　unlike　them；　it　held　that　it　was　a　part　of　the　structure　of　the　body　itself。　Naturally　the　practical　physicians　were　more　attracted　by　this　tangible　doctrine　than　by　vague　theories　〃which　converted　diseases　into　unknown　derangements　of　some　equally　unknown　'principle。'　〃

It　is　perhaps　straining　a　point　to　include　this　brief　description　of　these　three　schools　of　medicine　in　the　history　of　the　progress　of　the　science。　　But；　on　the　whole；　they　were　negatively　at　least　prominent　factors　in　directing　true　progress　along　its　proper　channel；　showing　what　courses　were　not　to　be　pursued。　　Some　one　has　said　that　science　usually　stumbles　into　the　right　course　only　after　stumbling　into　all　the　wrong　ones；　and　if　this　be　only　partially　true；　the　wrong　ones　still　play　a　prominent　if　not　a　very　creditable　part。　Thus　the　medical　systems　of　William　Cullen　（1710…1790）；　and　John　Brown　（1735…1788）；　while　doing　little　towards　the　actual　advancement　of　scientific　medicine；　played　so　conspicuous　a　part　in　so　wide　a　field　that　the　〃Brunonian　system〃　at　least　must　be　given　some　little　attention。

According　to　Brown's　theory；　life；　diseases；　and　methods　of　cure　are　explained　by　the　property　of　〃excitability。〃　　All　exciting　powers　were　supposed　to　be　stimulating；　the　apparent　debilitating　effects　of　some　being　due　to　a　deficiency　in　the　amount　of　stimulus。　Thus　〃the　whole　phenomena　of　life；　health；　as　well　as　disease；　were　supposed　to　consist　of　stimulus　and　nothing　else。〃　This　theory　created　a　great　stir　in　the　medical　world；　and　partisans　and　opponents　sprang　up　everywhere。　　In　Italy　it　was　enthusiastically　supported；　in　England　it　was　strongly　opposed；　while　in　Scotland　riots　took　place　between　the　opposing　factions。　Just　why　this　system　should　have　created　any　stir；　either　for　or　against　it；　is　not　now　apparent。

Like　so　many　of　the　other　〃theorists〃　of　his　century；　Brown's　practical　conclusions　deduced　from　his　theory　（or　perhaps　in　spite　of　it）　were　generally　beneficial　to　medicine；　and　some　of　them　extremely　valuable　in　the　treatment　of　diseases。　He　first　advocated　the　modern　stimulant；　or　〃feeding　treatment〃　of　fevers；　and　first　recognized　the　usefulness　of　animal　soups　and　beef…tea　in　certain　diseases。


THE　SYSTEM　OF　HAHNEMANN

Just　at　the　close　of　the　century　there　came　into　prominence　the　school　of　homoeopathy；　which　was　destined　to　influence　the　practice　of　medicine　very　materially　and　to　outlive　all　the　other　eighteenth…century　schools。　It　was　founded　by　Christian　Samuel　Friedrich　Hahnemann　（1755…1843）；　a　most　remarkable　man；　who；　after　propounding　a　theory　in　his　younger　days　which　was　at　least　as　reasonable　as　most　of　the　existing　theories；　had　the　misfortune　to　outlive　his　usefulness　and　lay　his　doctrine　open　to　ridicule　by　the　unreasonable　teachings　of　his　dotage；

Hahnemann　rejected　all　the　teachings　of　morbid　anatomy　and　pathology　as　useless　in　practice；　and　propounded　his　famous　〃similia　similibus　curantur〃that　all　diseases　were　to　be　cured　by　medicine　which　in　health　produced　symptoms　dynamically　similar　to　the　disease　under　treatment。　If　a　certain　medicine　produced　a　headache　when　given　to　a　healthy　person；　then　this　medicine　was　indicated　in　case　of　headaches；　etc。　At　the　present　time　such　a　theory　seems　crude　enough；　but　in　the　latter　part　of　the　eighteenth　century　almost　any　theory　was　as　good　as　the　ones　propounded　by　Animists；　Vitalists；　and　other　such　schools。　It　certainly　had　the　very　commendable　feature　of　introducing　simplicity　in　the　use　of　drugs　in　place　of　the　complicated　prescriptions　then　in　vogue。　Had　Hahnemann　stopped　at　this　point　he　could　not　have　been　held　up　to　the　indefensible　ridicule　that　was　brought　upon　him；　with　considerable　justice；　by　his　later　theories。　　But　he　lived　onto　propound　his　extraordinary　theory　of　〃potentiality〃that　medicines　gained　strength　by　being　dilutedand　his　even　more　extraordinary　theory　that　all　chronic　diseases　are　caused　either　by　the　itch；　syphilis；　or　fig…wart　disease；　or　are　brought　on　by　medicines。

At　the　time　that　his　theory　of　potentialities　was　promulgated；　the　medical　world　had　gone　mad　in　its　administration　of　huge　doses　of　compound　mixtures　of　drugs；　and　any　reaction　against　this　was　surely　an　improvement。　　In　short；　no　medicine　at　all　was　much　better　than　the　heaping　doses　used　in　common　practice；　and　hence　one　advantage；　at　least；　of　Hahnemann's　methods。　Stated　briefly；　his　theory　was　that　if　a　tincture　be　reduced　to　one…fiftieth　in　strength；　and　this　again　reduced　to　one…fiftieth；　and　this　process　repeated　up　to　thirty　such　dilutions；　the　potency　of　such　a　medicine　will　be　increased　by　each　dilution；　Hahnemann　himself　preferring　the　weakest；　or；　as　he　would　call　it；　the　strongest　dilution。　　The　absurdity　of　such　a　theory　is　apparent　when　it　is　understood　that　long　before　any　drug　has　been　raised　to　its　thirtieth　dilution　it　has　been　so　reduced　in　quantity　that　it　cannot　be　weighed；　measured；　or　recognized　as　being　present　in　the　solution　at　all　by　any　means　known　to　chemists。　It　is　but　just　to　modern　followers　of　homoeopathy　to　say　that　while　most　of　them　advocate　small　dosage；　they　do　not　necessarily　follow　the　teachings　of　Hahnemann　in　this　respect；　believing　that　the　theory　of　the　dose　〃has　nothing　more　to　do　with　the　original　law　of　cure　than　the　psora　（itch）　theory　has；　and　that　it　was　one　of　the　later　creations　of　Hahnemann's　mind。〃

Hahnemann's　theory　that　all　chronic　diseases　are　derived　from　either　itch；　syphilis；　or　fig…wart　disease　is　no　longer　advocated　by　his　followers；　because　it　is　so　easily　disproved；　particularly　in　the　case　of　itch。　Hahnemann　taught　that　fully　three…quarters　of　all　diseases　were　caused　by　〃itch　struck　in；〃　and　yet　it　had　been　demonstrated　long　before　his　day；　and　can　be　demonstrated　any　time；　that　itch　is　simply　a　local　skin　disease　caused　by　a　small　parasite。


JENNER　AND　VACCINATION

All　advances　in　science　have　a　bearing；　near　or　remote；　on　the　welfare　of　our　race；　but　it　remains　to　credit　to　the　closing　decade　of　the　eighteenth　century　a　discovery　which；　in　its　power　of　direct　and　immediate　benefit　to　humanity；　surpasses　any　other　discovery　of　this　or　any　previous　epoch。　Needless　to　say；　I　refer　to　Jenner's　discovery　of　the　method　of　preventing　smallpox　by　inoculation　with　the　virus　of　cow…pox。　It　detracts　nothing　from　the　merit　of　this　discovery　to　say　that　the　preventive　power　of　accidental　inoculation　had　long　been　rumored　among　the　peasantry　of　England。　　Such　vague；　unavailing　half…knowledge　is　often　the　forerunner　of　fruitful　discovery。

To　all　intents　and　purposes　Jenner's　discovery　was　original　and　unique。　Nor；　considered　as　a　perfect　method；　was　it　in　any　sense　an　accident。　It　was　a　triumph　of　experimental　science。　　The　discoverer　was　no　novice　in　scientific　investigation；　but　a　trained　observer；　who　had　served　a　long　apprenticeship　in　scientific　observation　under　no　less　a　scientist　than　the　celebrated　John　Hunter。　　At　the　age　of　twenty…one　Jenner　had　gone　to　London　to　pursue　his　medical　studies；　and　soon　after