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he¡¡soul£»¡¡and¡¡convulsions¡¡and¡¡spasmodic¡¡movements¡¡in¡¡disease¡¡are¡¡due£»¡¡to¡¡the£»¡¡same¡¡cause¡£¡¡¡¡Stagnation¡¡of¡¡the£»¡¡blood¡¡was¡¡supposed¡¡to¡¡be¡¡a¡¡fertile¡¡cause¡¡of¡¡diseases£»¡¡and¡¡such¡¡diseases¡¡were¡¡supposed¡¡to¡¡arise¡¡mostly¡¡from¡¡¡¨plethora¡¨an¡¡all¡­important¡¡element¡¡in¡¡Stahl's¡¡therapeutics¡£¡¡¡¡By¡¡many¡¡this¡¡theory¡¡is¡¡regarded¡¡as¡¡an¡¡attempt¡¡on¡¡the¡¡part¡¡of¡¡the¡¡pious¡¡Stahl¡¡to¡¡reconcile¡¡medicine¡¡and¡¡theology¡¡in¡¡a¡¡way¡¡satisfactory¡¡to¡¡both¡¡physicians¡¡and¡¡theologians£»¡¡but£»¡¡like¡¡many¡¡conciliatory¡¡attempts£»¡¡it¡¡was¡¡violently¡¡opposed¡¡by¡¡both¡¡doctors¡¡and¡¡ministers¡£

A¡¡belief¡¡in¡¡such¡¡a¡¡theory¡¡would¡¡lead¡¡naturally¡¡to¡¡simplicity¡¡in¡¡therapeutics£»¡¡and¡¡in¡¡this¡¡respect¡¡at¡¡least¡¡Stahl¡¡was¡¡consistent¡£¡¡Since¡¡the¡¡soul¡¡knew¡¡more¡¡about¡¡the¡¡body¡¡than¡¡any¡¡physician¡¡could¡¡know£»¡¡Stahl¡¡conceived¡¡that¡¡it¡¡would¡¡be¡¡a¡¡hinderance¡¡rather¡¡than¡¡a¡¡help¡¡for¡¡the¡¡physician¡¡to¡¡interfere¡¡with¡¡complicated¡¡doses¡¡of¡¡medicine¡£¡¡As¡¡he¡¡advanced¡¡in¡¡age¡¡this¡¡view¡¡of¡¡the¡¡administration¡¡of¡¡drugs¡¡grew¡¡upon¡¡him£»¡¡until¡¡after¡¡rejecting¡¡quinine£»¡¡and¡¡finally¡¡opium£»¡¡he¡¡at¡¡last¡¡used¡¡only¡¡salt¡¡and¡¡water¡¡in¡¡treating¡¡his¡¡patients¡£¡¡From¡¡this¡¡last¡¡we¡¡may¡¡judge¡¡that¡¡his¡¡¡¨system£»¡¨¡¡if¡¡not¡¡doing¡¡much¡¡good£»¡¡was¡¡at¡¡least¡¡doing¡¡little¡¡harm¡£

The¡¡theory¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Vitalists¡¡was¡¡closely¡¡allied¡¡to¡¡that¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Animists£»¡¡and¡¡its¡¡most¡¡important¡¡representative£»¡¡Paul¡¡Joseph¡¡Barthez£»¡¡was¡¡a¡¡cultured¡¡and¡¡eager¡¡scientist¡£¡¡¡¡After¡¡an¡¡eventful¡¡and¡¡varied¡¡career¡¡as¡¡physician£»¡¡soldier£»¡¡editor£»¡¡lawyer£»¡¡and¡¡philosopher¡¡in¡¡turn£»¡¡he¡¡finally¡¡returned¡¡to¡¡the¡¡field¡¡of¡¡medicine£»¡¡was¡¡made¡¡consulting¡¡physician¡¡by¡¡Napoleon¡¡in¡¡1802£»¡¡and¡¡died¡¡in¡¡Paris¡¡four¡¡years¡¡later¡£

The¡¡theory¡¡that¡¡he¡¡championed¡¡was¡¡based¡¡on¡¡the¡¡assumption¡¡that¡¡there¡¡was¡¡a¡¡¡¨vital¡¡principle£»¡¨¡¡the¡¡nature¡¡of¡¡which¡¡was¡¡unknown£»¡¡but¡¡which¡¡differed¡¡from¡¡the¡¡thinking¡¡mind£»¡¡and¡¡was¡¡the¡¡cause¡¡of¡¡the¡¡phenomena¡¡of¡¡life¡£¡¡This¡¡¡¨vital¡¡principle¡¨¡¡differed¡¡from¡¡the¡¡soul£»¡¡and¡¡was¡¡not¡¡exhibited¡¡in¡¡human¡¡beings¡¡alone£»¡¡but¡¡even¡¡in¡¡animals¡¡and¡¡plants¡£¡¡¡¡This¡¡force£»¡¡or¡¡whatever¡¡it¡¡might¡¡be¡¡called£»¡¡was¡¡supposed¡¡to¡¡be¡¡present¡¡everywhere¡¡in¡¡the¡¡body£»¡¡and¡¡all¡¡diseases¡¡were¡¡the¡¡results¡¡of¡¡it¡£

The¡¡theory¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Organicists£»¡¡like¡¡that¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Animists¡¡and¡¡Vitalists£»¡¡agreed¡¡with¡¡the¡¡other¡¡two¡¡that¡¡vital¡¡activity¡¡could¡¡not¡¡be¡¡explained¡¡by¡¡the¡¡laws¡¡of¡¡physics¡¡and¡¡chemistry£»¡¡but£»¡¡unlike¡¡them£»¡¡it¡¡held¡¡that¡¡it¡¡was¡¡a¡¡part¡¡of¡¡the¡¡structure¡¡of¡¡the¡¡body¡¡itself¡£¡¡Naturally¡¡the¡¡practical¡¡physicians¡¡were¡¡more¡¡attracted¡¡by¡¡this¡¡tangible¡¡doctrine¡¡than¡¡by¡¡vague¡¡theories¡¡¡¨which¡¡converted¡¡diseases¡¡into¡¡unknown¡¡derangements¡¡of¡¡some¡¡equally¡¡unknown¡¡'principle¡£'¡¡¡¨

It¡¡is¡¡perhaps¡¡straining¡¡a¡¡point¡¡to¡¡include¡¡this¡¡brief¡¡description¡¡of¡¡these¡¡three¡¡schools¡¡of¡¡medicine¡¡in¡¡the¡¡history¡¡of¡¡the¡¡progress¡¡of¡¡the¡¡science¡£¡¡¡¡But£»¡¡on¡¡the¡¡whole£»¡¡they¡¡were¡¡negatively¡¡at¡¡least¡¡prominent¡¡factors¡¡in¡¡directing¡¡true¡¡progress¡¡along¡¡its¡¡proper¡¡channel£»¡¡showing¡¡what¡¡courses¡¡were¡¡not¡¡to¡¡be¡¡pursued¡£¡¡¡¡Some¡¡one¡¡has¡¡said¡¡that¡¡science¡¡usually¡¡stumbles¡¡into¡¡the¡¡right¡¡course¡¡only¡¡after¡¡stumbling¡¡into¡¡all¡¡the¡¡wrong¡¡ones£»¡¡and¡¡if¡¡this¡¡be¡¡only¡¡partially¡¡true£»¡¡the¡¡wrong¡¡ones¡¡still¡¡play¡¡a¡¡prominent¡¡if¡¡not¡¡a¡¡very¡¡creditable¡¡part¡£¡¡Thus¡¡the¡¡medical¡¡systems¡¡of¡¡William¡¡Cullen¡¡£¨1710¡­1790£©£»¡¡and¡¡John¡¡Brown¡¡£¨1735¡­1788£©£»¡¡while¡¡doing¡¡little¡¡towards¡¡the¡¡actual¡¡advancement¡¡of¡¡scientific¡¡medicine£»¡¡played¡¡so¡¡conspicuous¡¡a¡¡part¡¡in¡¡so¡¡wide¡¡a¡¡field¡¡that¡¡the¡¡¡¨Brunonian¡¡system¡¨¡¡at¡¡least¡¡must¡¡be¡¡given¡¡some¡¡little¡¡attention¡£

According¡¡to¡¡Brown's¡¡theory£»¡¡life£»¡¡diseases£»¡¡and¡¡methods¡¡of¡¡cure¡¡are¡¡explained¡¡by¡¡the¡¡property¡¡of¡¡¡¨excitability¡£¡¨¡¡¡¡All¡¡exciting¡¡powers¡¡were¡¡supposed¡¡to¡¡be¡¡stimulating£»¡¡the¡¡apparent¡¡debilitating¡¡effects¡¡of¡¡some¡¡being¡¡due¡¡to¡¡a¡¡deficiency¡¡in¡¡the¡¡amount¡¡of¡¡stimulus¡£¡¡Thus¡¡¡¨the¡¡whole¡¡phenomena¡¡of¡¡life£»¡¡health£»¡¡as¡¡well¡¡as¡¡disease£»¡¡were¡¡supposed¡¡to¡¡consist¡¡of¡¡stimulus¡¡and¡¡nothing¡¡else¡£¡¨¡¡This¡¡theory¡¡created¡¡a¡¡great¡¡stir¡¡in¡¡the¡¡medical¡¡world£»¡¡and¡¡partisans¡¡and¡¡opponents¡¡sprang¡¡up¡¡everywhere¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡Italy¡¡it¡¡was¡¡enthusiastically¡¡supported£»¡¡in¡¡England¡¡it¡¡was¡¡strongly¡¡opposed£»¡¡while¡¡in¡¡Scotland¡¡riots¡¡took¡¡place¡¡between¡¡the¡¡opposing¡¡factions¡£¡¡Just¡¡why¡¡this¡¡system¡¡should¡¡have¡¡created¡¡any¡¡stir£»¡¡either¡¡for¡¡or¡¡against¡¡it£»¡¡is¡¡not¡¡now¡¡apparent¡£

Like¡¡so¡¡many¡¡of¡¡the¡¡other¡¡¡¨theorists¡¨¡¡of¡¡his¡¡century£»¡¡Brown's¡¡practical¡¡conclusions¡¡deduced¡¡from¡¡his¡¡theory¡¡£¨or¡¡perhaps¡¡in¡¡spite¡¡of¡¡it£©¡¡were¡¡generally¡¡beneficial¡¡to¡¡medicine£»¡¡and¡¡some¡¡of¡¡them¡¡extremely¡¡valuable¡¡in¡¡the¡¡treatment¡¡of¡¡diseases¡£¡¡He¡¡first¡¡advocated¡¡the¡¡modern¡¡stimulant£»¡¡or¡¡¡¨feeding¡¡treatment¡¨¡¡of¡¡fevers£»¡¡and¡¡first¡¡recognized¡¡the¡¡usefulness¡¡of¡¡animal¡¡soups¡¡and¡¡beef¡­tea¡¡in¡¡certain¡¡diseases¡£


THE¡¡SYSTEM¡¡OF¡¡HAHNEMANN

Just¡¡at¡¡the¡¡close¡¡of¡¡the¡¡century¡¡there¡¡came¡¡into¡¡prominence¡¡the¡¡school¡¡of¡¡homoeopathy£»¡¡which¡¡was¡¡destined¡¡to¡¡influence¡¡the¡¡practice¡¡of¡¡medicine¡¡very¡¡materially¡¡and¡¡to¡¡outlive¡¡all¡¡the¡¡other¡¡eighteenth¡­century¡¡schools¡£¡¡It¡¡was¡¡founded¡¡by¡¡Christian¡¡Samuel¡¡Friedrich¡¡Hahnemann¡¡£¨1755¡­1843£©£»¡¡a¡¡most¡¡remarkable¡¡man£»¡¡who£»¡¡after¡¡propounding¡¡a¡¡theory¡¡in¡¡his¡¡younger¡¡days¡¡which¡¡was¡¡at¡¡least¡¡as¡¡reasonable¡¡as¡¡most¡¡of¡¡the¡¡existing¡¡theories£»¡¡had¡¡the¡¡misfortune¡¡to¡¡outlive¡¡his¡¡usefulness¡¡and¡¡lay¡¡his¡¡doctrine¡¡open¡¡to¡¡ridicule¡¡by¡¡the¡¡unreasonable¡¡teachings¡¡of¡¡his¡¡dotage£»

Hahnemann¡¡rejected¡¡all¡¡the¡¡teachings¡¡of¡¡morbid¡¡anatomy¡¡and¡¡pathology¡¡as¡¡useless¡¡in¡¡practice£»¡¡and¡¡propounded¡¡his¡¡famous¡¡¡¨similia¡¡similibus¡¡curantur¡¨that¡¡all¡¡diseases¡¡were¡¡to¡¡be¡¡cured¡¡by¡¡medicine¡¡which¡¡in¡¡health¡¡produced¡¡symptoms¡¡dynamically¡¡similar¡¡to¡¡the¡¡disease¡¡under¡¡treatment¡£¡¡If¡¡a¡¡certain¡¡medicine¡¡produced¡¡a¡¡headache¡¡when¡¡given¡¡to¡¡a¡¡healthy¡¡person£»¡¡then¡¡this¡¡medicine¡¡was¡¡indicated¡¡in¡¡case¡¡of¡¡headaches£»¡¡etc¡£¡¡At¡¡the¡¡present¡¡time¡¡such¡¡a¡¡theory¡¡seems¡¡crude¡¡enough£»¡¡but¡¡in¡¡the¡¡latter¡¡part¡¡of¡¡the¡¡eighteenth¡¡century¡¡almost¡¡any¡¡theory¡¡was¡¡as¡¡good¡¡as¡¡the¡¡ones¡¡propounded¡¡by¡¡Animists£»¡¡Vitalists£»¡¡and¡¡other¡¡such¡¡schools¡£¡¡It¡¡certainly¡¡had¡¡the¡¡very¡¡commendable¡¡feature¡¡of¡¡introducing¡¡simplicity¡¡in¡¡the¡¡use¡¡of¡¡drugs¡¡in¡¡place¡¡of¡¡the¡¡complicated¡¡prescriptions¡¡then¡¡in¡¡vogue¡£¡¡Had¡¡Hahnemann¡¡stopped¡¡at¡¡this¡¡point¡¡he¡¡could¡¡not¡¡have¡¡been¡¡held¡¡up¡¡to¡¡the¡¡indefensible¡¡ridicule¡¡that¡¡was¡¡brought¡¡upon¡¡him£»¡¡with¡¡considerable¡¡justice£»¡¡by¡¡his¡¡later¡¡theories¡£¡¡¡¡But¡¡he¡¡lived¡¡onto¡¡propound¡¡his¡¡extraordinary¡¡theory¡¡of¡¡¡¨potentiality¡¨that¡¡medicines¡¡gained¡¡strength¡¡by¡¡being¡¡dilutedand¡¡his¡¡even¡¡more¡¡extraordinary¡¡theory¡¡that¡¡all¡¡chronic¡¡diseases¡¡are¡¡caused¡¡either¡¡by¡¡the¡¡itch£»¡¡syphilis£»¡¡or¡¡fig¡­wart¡¡disease£»¡¡or¡¡are¡¡brought¡¡on¡¡by¡¡medicines¡£

At¡¡the¡¡time¡¡that¡¡his¡¡theory¡¡of¡¡potentialities¡¡was¡¡promulgated£»¡¡the¡¡medical¡¡world¡¡had¡¡gone¡¡mad¡¡in¡¡its¡¡administration¡¡of¡¡huge¡¡doses¡¡of¡¡compound¡¡mixtures¡¡of¡¡drugs£»¡¡and¡¡any¡¡reaction¡¡against¡¡this¡¡was¡¡surely¡¡an¡¡improvement¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡short£»¡¡no¡¡medicine¡¡at¡¡all¡¡was¡¡much¡¡better¡¡than¡¡the¡¡heaping¡¡doses¡¡used¡¡in¡¡common¡¡practice£»¡¡and¡¡hence¡¡one¡¡advantage£»¡¡at¡¡least£»¡¡of¡¡Hahnemann's¡¡methods¡£¡¡Stated¡¡briefly£»¡¡his¡¡theory¡¡was¡¡that¡¡if¡¡a¡¡tincture¡¡be¡¡reduced¡¡to¡¡one¡­fiftieth¡¡in¡¡strength£»¡¡and¡¡this¡¡again¡¡reduced¡¡to¡¡one¡­fiftieth£»¡¡and¡¡this¡¡process¡¡repeated¡¡up¡¡to¡¡thirty¡¡such¡¡dilutions£»¡¡the¡¡potency¡¡of¡¡such¡¡a¡¡medicine¡¡will¡¡be¡¡increased¡¡by¡¡each¡¡dilution£»¡¡Hahnemann¡¡himself¡¡preferring¡¡the¡¡weakest£»¡¡or£»¡¡as¡¡he¡¡would¡¡call¡¡it£»¡¡the¡¡strongest¡¡dilution¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡absurdity¡¡of¡¡such¡¡a¡¡theory¡¡is¡¡apparent¡¡when¡¡it¡¡is¡¡understood¡¡that¡¡long¡¡before¡¡any¡¡drug¡¡has¡¡been¡¡raised¡¡to¡¡its¡¡thirtieth¡¡dilution¡¡it¡¡has¡¡been¡¡so¡¡reduced¡¡in¡¡quantity¡¡that¡¡it¡¡cannot¡¡be¡¡weighed£»¡¡measured£»¡¡or¡¡recognized¡¡as¡¡being¡¡present¡¡in¡¡the¡¡solution¡¡at¡¡all¡¡by¡¡any¡¡means¡¡known¡¡to¡¡chemists¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡but¡¡just¡¡to¡¡modern¡¡followers¡¡of¡¡homoeopathy¡¡to¡¡say¡¡that¡¡while¡¡most¡¡of¡¡them¡¡advocate¡¡small¡¡dosage£»¡¡they¡¡do¡¡not¡¡necessarily¡¡follow¡¡the¡¡teachings¡¡of¡¡Hahnemann¡¡in¡¡this¡¡respect£»¡¡believing¡¡that¡¡the¡¡theory¡¡of¡¡the¡¡dose¡¡¡¨has¡¡nothing¡¡more¡¡to¡¡do¡¡with¡¡the¡¡original¡¡law¡¡of¡¡cure¡¡than¡¡the¡¡psora¡¡£¨itch£©¡¡theory¡¡has£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡it¡¡was¡¡one¡¡of¡¡the¡¡later¡¡creations¡¡of¡¡Hahnemann's¡¡mind¡£¡¨

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JENNER¡¡AND¡¡VACCINATION

All¡¡advances¡¡in¡¡science¡¡have¡¡a¡¡bearing£»¡¡near¡¡or¡¡remote£»¡¡on¡¡the¡¡welfare¡¡of¡¡our¡¡race£»¡¡but¡¡it¡¡remains¡¡to¡¡credit¡¡to¡¡the¡¡closing¡¡decade¡¡of¡¡the¡¡eighteenth¡¡century¡¡a¡¡discovery¡¡which£»¡¡in¡¡its¡¡power¡¡of¡¡direct¡¡and¡¡immediate¡¡benefit¡¡to¡¡humanity£»¡¡surpasses¡¡any¡¡other¡¡discovery¡¡of¡¡this¡¡or¡¡any¡¡previous¡¡epoch¡£¡¡Needless¡¡to¡¡say£»¡¡I¡¡refer¡¡to¡¡Jenner's¡¡discovery¡¡of¡¡the¡¡method¡¡of¡¡preventing¡¡smallpox¡¡by¡¡inoculation¡¡with¡¡the¡¡virus¡¡of¡¡cow¡­pox¡£¡¡It¡¡detracts¡¡nothing¡¡from¡¡the¡¡merit¡¡of¡¡this¡¡discovery¡¡to¡¡say¡¡that¡¡the¡¡preventive¡¡power¡¡of¡¡accidental¡¡inoculation¡¡had¡¡long¡¡been¡¡rumored¡¡among¡¡the¡¡peasantry¡¡of¡¡England¡£¡¡¡¡Such¡¡vague£»¡¡unavailing¡¡half¡­knowledge¡¡is¡¡often¡¡the¡¡forerunner¡¡of¡¡fruitful¡¡discovery¡£

To¡¡all¡¡intents¡¡and¡¡purposes¡¡Jenner's¡¡discovery¡¡was¡¡original¡¡and¡¡unique¡£¡¡Nor£»¡¡considered¡¡as¡¡a¡¡perfect¡¡method£»¡¡was¡¡it¡¡in¡¡any¡¡sense¡¡an¡¡accident¡£¡¡It¡¡was¡¡a¡¡triumph¡¡of¡¡experimental¡¡science¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡discoverer¡¡was¡¡no¡¡novice¡¡in¡¡scientific¡¡investigation£»¡¡but¡¡a¡¡trained¡¡observer£»¡¡who¡¡had¡¡served¡¡a¡¡long¡¡apprenticeship¡¡in¡¡scientific¡¡observation¡¡under¡¡no¡¡less¡¡a¡¡scientist¡¡than¡¡the¡¡celebrated¡¡John¡¡Hunter¡£¡¡¡¡At¡¡the¡¡age¡¡of¡¡twenty¡­one¡¡Jenner¡¡had¡¡gone¡¡to¡¡London¡¡to¡¡pursue¡¡his¡¡medical¡¡studies£»¡¡and¡¡soon¡¡after¡¡

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