the origins of contemporary france-5-第63节

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hundred　signed　their　marriage　contract。　From　1816　to　1820；　the　figures

show　54　husbands　and　34　wives。）　…　Morris　Birbeck；　〃Notes　of　a　Journey

through　France　in　July；　August　and　September　1814。〃　p。3　（London；

1815）。　　〃I　am　told　that　all　the　children　of　the　laboring　classes　learn

to　read；　and　are　generally　instructed　by　their　parents。〃



＇146＇　Madame　de　Rémusat；　I。；　243。　（Journey　in　the　north　of　France　and

in　Belgium　with　the　First　Consul；　1803。）　〃On　journeys　of　this　kind　he

was　in　the　habit；　after　obtaining　information　about　the　public

buildings　a　town　needed；　to　order　them　as　he　passed　along；　and；　for

this　munificence；　he　bore　away　the　blessings　of　the　people。〃　…　Some

time　after　this　a　letter　came　from　the　minister　of　the　interior：　〃In

conformity　with　the　favor　extended　to　you　by　the　First　Consul　（later；

emperor）　you　are　required；　citizen　mayor；　to　order　the　construction　of

this　or　that　building；　taking　care　to　charge　the　expenses　on　the　funds

of　your　commune；〃　and　which　the　prefect　of　the　department　obliges　him

to　do；　even　when　available　funds　are　exhausted　or　otherwise　applied。



＇147＇　Thiers；　VIII。；　117　　（August　1807）　and　124。　13；400　leagues　of

highways　were　constructed　or　repaired；　10　canals　were　dug　or

continued；　at　the　expense　of　the　public　treasury；　32　departments

contribute　to　the　expense　of　these　through　the　extra　centimes　tax；

which　is　imposed　on　them。　The　State　and　the　department；　on　the

average；　contribute　each　one…half。　…　Among　the　material　evils　caused

by　the　Revolution；　the　most　striking　and　the　most　seriously　felt　was

the　abandonment　and　running　down　of　roads　which　had　become

impracticable；　also　the　still　more　formidable　degeneracy　of　the　dikes

and　barriers　against　rivers　and　the　sea。　（Cf。　in　Rocquain；　〃état　de　la

France　au　18　Brumaire；〃　the　reports　of　Fran？ais　de　Nantes；　Fourcroy；

Barbeé…Marbois；　etc。）　…　The　Directory　had　imagined　barrriers　with

toll…gates　on　each　road　to　provide　expenses；　which　brought　in　scarcely

16　millions　to　offset　30　and　35　millions　of　expenditure。　Napoleon

substitutes　for　these　tolls　the　product　of　the　salt…tax。　（Decree　of

April　24；　1806；　art。　59。）



＇148＇　〃Souvenirs〃；　by　PASQUIER　（Etienne…Dennis；　duc）　Librarie　Plon；

Paris　1893。　　〃Scarcely　two　or　three　highways　remained　in　decent　order。

。　。　。　Navigation　on　the　rivers　and　canals　became　impossible　Public

buildings　and　monuments　were　everywhere　falling　to　ruin。　。　。　。　If　the

rapidity　of　destruction　was　prodigious；　that　of　restoration　was　no

less　so。







CHAPTER　II。　TAXATION　AND　CONSCRIPTION。



I。　Distributive　Justice　in　Allotment　of　Burdens　and　Benefits。



Requirements　previous　to　the　Revolution。　…　Lack　of　distributive

justice。　…　Wrongs　committed　in　the　allotment　of　social　sacrifices　and

benefits。　…　Under　the　ancient　Regime。　…　During　the　Revolution。　…

Napoleon's　personal　and　public　motives　in　the　application　of

distributive　justice。　…　The　circumstances　favorable　to　him。　…　His

principle　of　apportionment。　…　He　exacts　proportion　in　what　he　grants。



The　other　group　of　needs；　dating　from　long　before　1789；　involve　wants

which　have　survived　the　Revolution；　because　the　Revolution　has　not

satisfied　these。　The　first；　the　most　tenacious；　the　most　profound；　the

most　inveterate；　the　most　frustrated　of　all　is　the　desire　for

distributive　justice。　…　In　political　society；　as　in　every　other

society；　there　are　burdens　and　benefits　to　be　allotted。　When　the

apportionment　of　these　is　unbiased；　it　takes　place　according　to　a　very

simple；　self…evident　principle：



For　each　individual　the　costs　must　be　in　proportion　to　the　benefits

and　the　benefits　to　the　costs；　so　that；　for　each　one；　the　final

expense　and　the　final　receipt　may　exactly　compensate　each　other；　the

larger　or　smaller　share　of　expense　being　always　equal　to　the　larger　or

smaller　share　of　profits。



Now；　in　France；　this　proportion　had　been　wanting　for　many　centuries；

it　had　even　given　way　to　the　inverse　proportion。　If；　towards　the

middle　of　the　eighteenth　century；　two　sum…totals　of　the　budget；

material　and　moral；　had　been　calculated；　assets　on　one　side　and

liabilities　on　the　other：



On　the　one　hand　the　sum　of　the　apportionments　exacted　by　the　State；

taxes　in　ready　money；　enforced　labor；　military　service；　civil

subordination；　every　species　of　obedience　and　subjection；　in　short；

every　sacrifice　of　leisure；　comfort　and　self…esteem。



On　the　other　hand　the　sum　of　dividends　distributed　by　the　State　of

whatever　kind　or　shape；　security　for　persons　and　property；　use　and

convenience　of　roads；　delegations　of　public　authority　land　liens　on

the　public　treasury；　dignities；　ranks；　grades；　honors；　lucrative

salaries；　sinecures；　pensions；　and　the　like；　that　is　to　say；　every

gratification　belonging　to　leisure；　comfort；　or　pride　…　one　might　have

concluded　that　the　more　a　man　contributed　to　the　receipts　the　less

would　his　dividend　be；　and　the　greater　his　dividend　the　less　would　he

furnish　to　the　general　contribution。



Consequently；　every　social　or　local　group　consisted　of　two　other

groups：　a　majority　which　suffered　for　the　benefit　of　the　minority；　and

a　minority　which　benefited　at　the　expense　of　the　majority；　to　such　an

extent　that　the　privations　of　the　greatest　number　defrayed　the　luxury

of　the　small　number。　This　was　the　case　in　all　compartments　as　on　every

story；　owing　to　the　multitude；　enormity　and　diversity　of　honorific　or

useful　privileges；　owing　to　the　legal　prerogatives　and　effective

preferences　by　which　the　court　nobles　benefited　at　the　expense　of　the

provincial　nobility；



*　the　noblesse　at　the　expense　of　plebeians；

*　the　prelates　and　beneficiaries　at　the　expense　of　poorly…paid　curés

and　vicars；

*　the　two　highest　orders　of　the　clergy　at　the　expense　of　the　third；

*　the　bourgeoisie　at　the　expense　of　the　people；

*　the　towns　at　the　expense　of　the　rural　districts；

*　this　or　that　town　or　province　at　the　expense　of　the　rest；

*　the　artisan　member　of　a　corporation　at　the　expense　of　the　free

workman；



and；　in　general；　the　strong；　more　or　less　well…to…do；　in　league　and

protected；　at　the　expense　of　the　weak；　more　or　less　needy；　isolated

and　unprotected　（indéfendus）。＇1＇



One　hundred　years　before　the　Revolution　a　few　clairvoyant；　open…

hearted　and　generous　spirits　had　already　been　aroused　by　this

scandalous　disproportion。＇2＇　Finally；　everybody　is　shocked　by　it；　for；

in　each　local　or　social　group；　nearly　everybody　is　a　sufferer；　not

alone　the　rural；　the　peasant；　the　artisan；　and　the　plebeian；　not　alone

the　citizen；　the　curé　and　the　bourgeois　notable；〃　but　again　the

gentleman；　the　grand　seignior；　the　prelate　and　the　King　himself。＇3＇

Each　is　denouncing　the　privileges　of　all　others　that　affect　his

interests；　each　striving　to　diminish　another's　share　in　the　public

cake　and　to　keep　his　own；　all　concurring　in　citing　natural　right　and

in　claiming　or　accepting　as　a　principle　liberty　and　equality；　but　all

concurring　in　misconception　and　solely　unanimous　in　destroying　and　in

allowing　destruction；＇4＇　to　such　an　extent　that；　at　last；　the　attack

being　universal　and　no　defense　anywhere；　social　order　itself　perishes；

entirely　owing　to　the　abuses　of　it。



On　the　reappearance　of　the　same　abuses；　the　lack　of　distributive

justice　in　revolutionary　France　became　still　more　apparent　than　in

monarchical　France。　Through　a　sudden　transposition；　the　preferred　of

the　former　Régime　had　become　the　disgraced；　while　the　disgraced　of　the

former　Régime　had　become　the　preferred；　unjust　favor　and　unjust

disfavor　still　subsisted；　but　with　a　change　of　object。　Before　1789；

the　nation　was　subject　to　an　oligarchy　of　nobles　and　notables；　after

1789；　it　became　subject　to　an　oligarchy　of　Jacobins　big　or　little。

Before　the　Revolution；　there　were　in　France　three　or　four　hundred

thousand　privileged　individuals；　recognizable　by　their　red　heels　or

silver　shoe…buckles。　After　the　Revolution；　there　were　three　or　four

hundred　thousand　of　the　privileged；　recognizable　by　their　red　caps　or

their　carmagnoles。＇5＇　The　most　privileged　of　all；　the　three　or　four

thousand　verified　nobles；　presented　at　court　and　of　racial　antiquity；

who；　by　virtue　of　their　parchments；　rode　in　the　royal　carriages；　were

succeeded　by　three　or　four　thousand　Jacobins　of　a　fresh　sprout；　no

less　verified　and　accepted；　who；　by　virtue　of　their　civic　patent；　sat

in　the　club　of　the　rue　Saint…Honoré　and　the　latter　coterie　was　still

more　dominant；　more　exclusive；　more　partial　than　the　former　one。

Consequently；　before　the　Revolution；　the　burden　of　taxation　was　light

for　the　rich　or　the　well…to…do；　crushing　for　the　peasants　or　the

common　people；　after　the　Revolution；　on　the　contrary；　the　peasants；

the　common　people；　paid　no　more　taxes；＇6＇　while　from　the　rich　and　the

well…to…do　the　government　took　all；　not　alone　their　income　but　their

capital。　…　On　the　other　hand；　after　having　fed　the　court　of

Versailles；　the　public　treasury　had　to　feed　the　rabble　of　Paris；　still

more　voraciou