the origins of contemporary france-5-第38节

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this　system　lasts；　and　continues　to　crush　them　out；　the　human

community　loses　the　faculty　of　reproducing　them；　entirely　extirpated；

they　do　not　grow　again；　even　their　germ　has　perished。　Individuals　no

longer　know　how　to　form　associations；　how　to　co…operate　under　their

own　impulses；　through　their　own　initiative；　free　of　outside　and

superior　constraint；　all　together　and　for　a　long　time　in　view　of　a

definite　purpose；　according　to　regular　forms　under　freely…chosen

chiefs；　frankly　accepted　and　faithfully　followed。　Mutual　confidence；

respect　for　the　law；　loyalty；　voluntary　subordination；　foresight；

moderation；　patience；　perseverance；　practical　good　sense；　every

disposition　of　head　and　heart；　with　which　no　association　of　any　kind

is　efficacious　or　even　viable；　have　died　out　for　lack　of　exercise。

Henceforth　spontaneous；　pacific；　and　fruitful　co…operation；　as

practiced　by　a　free　people；　is　unattainable；　men　have　arrived　at

social　incapacity　and；　consequently；　at　political　incapacity。　…　In

fact　they　no　longer　choose　their　own　constitution　or　their　own　rulers；

they　put　with　these；　willingly　or　not；　according　as　accident　or

usurpation　furnishes　them：　now　the　public　power　belongs　to　the　man；

the　faction；　or　the　party　sufficiently　unscrupulous；　sufficiently

daring；　sufficiently　violent；　to　seize　and　hold　on　to　it　by　force；　to

make　the　most　of　it　as　an　egotist　or　charlatan；　aided　by　parades　and

prestige；　along　with　bravura　songs　and　the　usual　din　of　ready…made

phrases　on　the　rights　of　Man　and　the　public　salvation。　…　This　central

power　itself　has　in　its　hands　no　body　who　might　give　it　an　impetus　and

inspiration；　it　rules　only　over　an　impoverished；　inert；　or　languid

social　body；　solely　capable　of　intermittent　spasms　or　of　artificial

rigidity　according　to　order；　an　organism　deprived　of　its　secondary

organs；　simplified　to　excess；　of　an　inferior　or　degraded　kind；　a

people　no　longer　anything　but　an　arithmetical　sum　of　separate；

unconnected　units；　in　brief；　human　dust　or　mud。　…　This　is　what　the

interference　of　the　State　leads　to。



　There　are　laws　in　the　social　and　moral　world　as　in　the　physiological

and　physical　world；　we　may　misunderstand　them；　but　we　cannot　elude

them；　they　operate　now　against　us；　now　for　us；　as　we　please；　but

always　alike　and　without　heeding　us；　it　is　for　us　to　heed　them；　for

the　two　conditions　they　couple　together　are　inseparable；　the　moment

the　first　appears　the　second　inevitably　follows。



_____________________________________________________________________



Notes：



＇1＇　Macaulay；　〃Essays：　Gladstone　on　Church　and　State。〃　…　This

principle；　of　capital　importance　and　of　remarkable　fecundity；　may　be

called　the　principle　of　specialties。　Adam　Smith　fist　applied　it　to

machines　and　to　workmen。　Macaulay　extended　it　to　human　associations。

Milne…Edwards　applied　it　to　the　entire　series　of　animal　organs。

Herbert　Spencer　largely　develops　it　in　connection　with　physiological

organs　and　human　societies　in　his　〃Principles　of　Biology〃　and

〃Principles　of　Sociology。〃　I　have　attempted　here　to　show　the　three

parallel　branches　of　its　consequences；　and；　again；　their　common　root；

a　constitutive　and　primordial　property　inherent　in　every

instrumentality。



＇2＇　Cf。　〃The　Revolution；〃　III。；　book　VI。；　ch。　2　The　encroachments　of

the　State　and　their　effect　on　individuals　is　there　treated。　Here；　the

question　is　their　effects　on　corporations。　Read；　on　the　same　subject；

〃Gladstone　on　Church　and　State；〃　by　Macaulay；　and　〃The　Man　versus　the

State；〃　by　Herbert　Spencer；　two　essays　in　which　the　close　reasoning

and　abundance　of　illustrations　are　admirable。



＇3＇　〃The　Revolution；〃　III；　346。　（Laffont　II。　p　258。）



＇4＇　　Ibid。；　III。　284　Laff。　213。



＇5＇　〃The　Revolution；〃　III。；　353；　416。　（Laffont　II。　notes　pp　262　and

305　to　308。）



＇6＇　〃The　Ancient　Régime；〃　64；　65；　76；　77；　120；　121；　292。　（Laffont　I。

pp。　52…53；　60…61；　92　to　94；　218　to　219。）



＇7＇　〃The　Revolution；〃　I。；　177　and　following　pages。　（Laffont　I；　pp。　438

to　445。）



＇8＇　The　essays　of　Herbert　Spencer　furnish　examples　for　England　under

the　title　of　〃Over…legislation　and　Representative　government。〃

Examples　for　France　may　be　found　in　〃Liberté　du　Travail；〃　by　Charles

Dunoyer　（1845）。　This　work　anticipates　most　of　the　ideas　of　Herbert

Spencer；　lacking　only　the　physiological　〃illustrations。〃









CHAPTER　III。　The　New　Government　Organization。



I。

Precedents　of　the　new　organization。　…　In　practical　operation。　…

Anterior　usurpations　of　the　public　power。　…　Spontaneous　bodies　under

the　Ancient　Regime　and　during　the　Revolution。　…　Ruin　and　discredit　of

their　supports。　…　The　central　power　their　sole　surviving　dependence。　…



Unfortunately；　in　France　at　the　end　of　the　eighteenth　century　the　bent

was　taken　and　the　wrong　bent。　For　three　centuries　and　more　the　public

power　had　increasingly　violated　and　discredited　spontaneous　bodies：



Sometimes　it　had　mutilated　them　and　decapitated　them；　for　example；　it

had　suppressed　provincial　governments　（états）　over　three…quarters　of

the　territory；　in　all　the　electoral　districts；　nothing　remained　of　the

old　province　but　its　name　and　an　administrative　circumscription。



Sometimes；　without　mutilating　the　corporate　body　it　had　upset　and

deformed　it；　or　dislocated　and　disjointed　it。　…　So　that　in　the　towns；

through　changes　made　in　old　democratic　constitutions；　through

restrictions　put　upon　electoral　rights　and　repeated　sales　of　municipal

offices；＇1＇　it　had　handed　over　municipal　authority　to　a　narrow

oligarchy　of　bourgeois　families；　privileged　at　the　expense　of　the

taxpayer；　half　separated　from　the　main　body　of　the　public；　disliked　by

the　lower　classes；　and　no　longer　supported　by　the　confidence　or

deference　of　the　community。　And　in　the　parish　and　in　the　rural　canton；

it　had　taken　away　from　the　noble　his　office　of　resident　protector　and

hereditary　patron；　reducing　him　to　the　odious　position　of　a　mere

creditor；　and；　if　he　were　a　man　of　the　court；　to　the　yet　worse

position　of　an　absentee　creditor。＇2＇　…　So　that　in　the　parish　and　in

the　rural　canton；　it　had　taken　away　from　the　noble　his　office　of

resident　protector　and　hereditary　patron；　reducing　him　to　the　odious

position　of　a　mere　creditor；　and；　if　he　were　a　man　of　the　court；　to

the　yet　worse　position　of　an　absentee　creditor。＇3＇　Thus；　as　to　the

clergy；　it　had　almost　separated　the　head　from　the　trunk　by　superposing

（through　the　concordat）　a　staff　of　gentleman　prelates；　rich；

ostentatious；　unemployed；　and　skeptical；　upon　an　army　of　plain；　poor；

laborious；　and　believing　curates。＇4＇



Finally；　it　had；　through　a　protection　as　untimely　as　it　was

aggressive；　sometimes　conferred　on　the　corporation　oppressive

privileges　which　rendered　it　offensive　and　mischievous；　or　else

fossilized　in　an　obsolete　form　which　paralyzed　its　action　or　corrupted

its　service。　Such　was　the　case　with　the　corporations　of　crafts　and

industries　to　which；　in　consideration　of　financial　aid；　it　had

conceded　monopolies　onerous　to　the　consumer　and　a　clog　on　industrial

enterprises。　Such　was　the　case　with　the　Catholic　Church　to　which；

every　five　years；　it　granted；　in　exchange　for　its　voluntary　gift　（of

money）；　cruel　favors　or　obnoxious　prerogatives；　the　prolonged

persecution　of　Protestants；　the　censorship　of　intellectual

speculation；　and　the　right　of　controlling　schools　and　education。＇5＇

Such　was　the　case　with　the　universities　benumbed　by　routine；　with

latest　provincial　〃ètats；〃　constituted　in　1789；　as　in　1489。　Such　was

the　case　with　noble　families　subjected　by　law　to　the　antique　system　of

substitutions　and　of　primogeniture；　that　is　to　say；　to　social

constraint　which；　devised　long　ago　for　private　as　well　as　for　public

interest　in　order　to　secure　the　transmission　of　local　patronage　and

political　power。　This　system；　however；　became　useless　and　corrupting；

fecund　in　pernicious　vanities；＇6＇　in　detestable　calculations；　domestic

tyrannies；　forced　vocations；　and　private　bickering；　from　the　time　when

the　nobles；　become　frequenters　of　the　court；　had　lost　political　power

and　renounced　local　patronage。



Thus　deprived　of；　or　diverted　from；　their　purpose；　the　corporate

bodies　had　become　unrecognizable　under　the　crust　of　the　abuses　which

disfigured　them。　Nobody；　except　a　Montesquieu；　could　comprehend　why

they　should　exist；　on　the　approach　of　the　Revolution；　they　seemed；　not

organs；　but　outgrowths；　deformities；　and；　so　to　say；　superannuated

monstrosities。　Their　historical　and　natural　roots；　their　living　germs

far　below　the　surface；　their　social　necessity；　their　fundamental

utility；　their　possible　usefulness；　were　no　longer　visible。　Only　their

present　inconvenience　was　felt；　people　suffered　by　their　friction　and

burden；　their　lack　of　harmony　and　incoherence　created　dissatisfaction；

annoyance　due　to　their　degeneracy　were　attributed　to　radical　defects；

they　were　judged　to　be　naturally　unsound　and　were　condemned；　in

principle；　because　of　the　deviations　and　laws　which　t