the origins of contemporary france-5-第104节

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that　of　taxation。　The　indebted　communes；　except　Paris；　owed；

altogether；　in　1868；　524　millions　francs＇43＇　；　in　1871；　711　millions；

and　in　1878；　1322　millions　francs。＇44＇　　Paris；　in　1868；　already　owed

1326　millions；　March　30；　1878；　it　owed　1988　millions。　In　this　same

Paris；　the　annual　contribution　of　each　inhabitant　for　local　expenses

was；　at　the　end　of　the　first　Empire；　in　1813；　37　francs　per　head；　at

the　end　of　the　Restoration；＇45＇　francs；　after　the　July　monarchy；　in

1848；　43　francs；　and；　at　the　end　of　the　second　Empire；　in　1869；　94

francs。　In　1887；45　it　is　110　francs　per　head。　＇46＇





VIII。　Final　result　in　a　tendency　to　bankruptcy。



Such；　in　brief；　is　the　history　of　local　society　from　1789　down　to

1889。　After　the　philosophic　demolition　of　the　Revolution　and　the

practical　constructions　of　the　Consulate；　it　could　no　longer　be　a

small　patrimony；　something　to　take　pride　in；　an　object　of　affection

and　devotion　to　its　inhabitants。　The　departments　and　communes　have

become　more　or　less　vast　lodging…houses；　all　built　on　the　same　plan

and　managed　according　to　the　same　regulations　one　as　passable　as　the

other；　with　apartments　in　them　which；　more　or　less　good；　are　more　or

less　dear；　but　at　rates　which；　higher　or　lower；　are　fixed　at　a　uniform

tariff　over　the　entire　territory；　so　that　the　36；000　communal

buildings　and　the　86　department　hotels　are　about　equal；　it　making　but

little　difference　whether　one　lodges　in　the　latter　rather　than　in　the

former。　The　permanent　taxpayers　of　both　sexes　who　have　made　these

premises　their　home；　have　not　obtained　recognition　for　what　they　are；

invincibly　and　by　nature；　a　syndicate　of　neighbors；　an　involuntary；

obligatory　and　private　association；　in　which　physical　solidarity

engenders　moral　solidarity；　a　natural；　limited　society　whose　members

own　the　building　in　common；　and　each　possesses　a　property　right　more

or　less　great；　according　to　the　greater　or　lesser　contribution　he

makes　to　the　expenses　of　the　establishment。　Up　to　this　time　no　room

has　yet　been　found；　either　in　the　law　or　in　minds；　for　this　very　plain

truth；　its　place　is　taken　and　occupied　in　advance　by　the　two　errors

which；　in　turn　or　both　at　once；　have　led　the　legislator　and　opinion

astray。



Taking　things　as　a　whole；　it　is　admitted　up　to　1830　that　the

legitimate　proprietor　of　the　local　building　is　the　central　state；　that

it　may　install　its　delegate　therein；　the　prefect；　with　full　powers；

that；　for　better　government；　he　consents　to　be　instructed　by　the

leading　interested　and　most　capable　parties　on　the　spot；　that　he

should　fix　the　petty　rights　he　concedes　to　them　within　the　narrowest

limits；　that　he　should　appoint　them；　that；　if　he　calls　them　together

for　consultation；　it　is　from　time　to　time　and　generally　for　form's

sake；　to　add　the　authority　of　their　assent　to　the　authority　of　his

omnipotence；　on　the　implied　condition　that　he　shall　not　give　heed　to

their　objections　if　he　does　not　like　them；　and　not　follow　their　advice

if　he　does　not　choose　to　accept　it。　…　Taking　things　as　a　whole；　it　is

admitted　that；　since　1848；　the　legitimate　proprietors　of　the　building

are　its　adult　male　inhabitants；　counted　by　heads；　all　equal　and　all

with　an　equal　part　in　the　common　property；　comprising　those　who

contribute　nothing　or　nearly　nothing　to　the　common　expenditure　of　the

house；　the　numerous　body　of　semi…poor　who　lodge　in　it　at　half　price；

and　the　not　less　numerous　body　to　whom　administrative　charity

furnishes　house　comforts；　shelter；　light；　and　frequently　provisions；

gratuitously。　…　Between　both　these　contradictory　and　false

conceptions；　between　the　prefect　of　the　year　VIII；　and　the　democracy

of　1792；　a　compromise　has　been　effected；　undoubtedly；　the　prefect；

sent　from　Paris；　is　and　remains　the　titular　director；　the　active　and

responsible　manager　of　the　departmental　or　communal　building；　but；　in

his　management　of　it　he　is　bound　to　keep　in　view　the　coming　elections；

and　in　such　a　way　as　will　maintain　the　parliamentary　majority　in　the

seats　they　occupy　in　parliament；　consequently；　he　must　conciliate　the

local　leaders　of　universal　suffrage；　rule　with　their　help；　put　up　with

the　intrusion　of　their　bias　and　cupidity；　take　their　advice　daily；


follow　it　often；　even　in　small　matters；　even　in　payments　day　by　day　of

sums　already　voted；　in　appointing　an　office…clerk；　in　the　appointment

of　an　unpaid　underling；　who　may　some　day　or　other　take　this　clerk's

place。＇47＇　…　Hence　the　spectacle　before　our　eyes：　a　badly　kept

establishment　in　which　profusion　and　waste　render　each　other　worse　and

worse；　where　sinecures　multiply　and　where　corruption　enters　in；　a

staff　of　officials　becoming　more　and　more　numerous　and　less　and　less

serviceable；　harassed　between　two　different　authorities；　obliged　to

possess　or　to　simulate　political　zeal　and　to　neutralize　an　impartial

law　by　partiality；　and；　besides　performing　their　regular　duties；　to　do

dirty　work；　in　this　staff；　there　are　two　sorts　of　employees；　the　new…

comers　who　are　greedy　and　who；　through　favor；　get　the　best　places；　and

the　old　ones　who　are　patient　and　pretend　no　more；　but　who　suffer　and

grow　disheartened；　in　the　building　itself；　there　is　great　demolition

and　reconstruction；　architectural　fronts　in　monumental　style　for

parade　and　to　excite　attention；　entirely　new　decorative　and　extremely

tiresome　structures　at　extravagant　cost；　consequently；　loans　and

debts；　heavier　bills　at　the　end　of　each　year　for　each　occupant；　low

rents；　but　still　high；　for　favorites　in　the　small　rooms　and　garrets；

and　extravagant　rents　for　the　larger　and　more　sumptuous　apartments；　in

sum；　forced　receipts　which　do　not　offset　the　expenses；　liabilities

which　exceed　assets；　a　budget　which　shows　only　a　stable　balance　on

paper；　…　　in　short；　an　establishment　with　which　the　public　is　not

content；　and　which　is　on　the　road　to　bankruptcy。



____________________________________________________________________



Notes：



＇1＇　Laws　of　March　21；　1831；　and　July　18；　1837；　June　22；　1833；　and　May

10；　1838。　The　municipal　electors　number　about　2；250；000　and　form　the

superior　third　of　the　adult　masculine　population；　in　the　choice　of　its

notables　and　semi…notables；　the　law　takes　into　account　not　only　wealth

and　direct　taxation　but　likewise　education　and　services　rendered　to

the　public。　…　The　department　electors　number　about　200；000；　about　as

many　as　the　political　electors。　The　reporter　observes　that　〃an　almost

complete　analogy　exists　between　the　choice　of　a　deputy　and　the　choice

of　a　department　councilor；　and　that　it　is　natural　to　confide　the

election　to　the　same　electoral　body　otherwise　divided；　since　the

object　is　to　afford　representation　to　another　order　of　interests。〃



＇2＇　Laws　of　July　3；　1848。



＇3＇　Laws　of　Aug。　12；　1876；　March　28；　1882；　and　April　5；　1884；　law　of

Aug。　10；　1871。



＇4＇　The　prefect；　who　is　directed　and　posted　by　the　minister　of　the

Interior　in　Paris。



＇5＇　〃The　Revolution；〃　vol。　I。；　book　VIII。　（Laff。　I。　pp。　467…559。）



＇6＇　　And　in　1880　it　certainly　excluded　the　female　side　of　human

nature。　（SR。）



＇7＇　It　must　have　been　evident　that　nature　gives　to　each　worker；

hunter；　farmer　or　fisherman　in　accordance　with　their　competence　and

industry。　（SR。）



＇8＇　Construction　of　roads；　canals；　sewers；　highways　etc　and　protection

against　calamities。



＇9＇　Paul　Leroy…Beaulieu；　〃Traité　de　la　science　des　finances；〃　4th

edition；　I。；　p。　303：　〃The　personal　tax；　levied　only　as　principal；

oscillates　between　the　minimum　of　1　fr。　50　and　the　maximum　of　4　fr。　50

per　annum；　according　to　the　communes。　…　Ibid。；　304：　〃In　1806　the

personal　tax　produced　in　France　about　sixteen　millions　of　francs；　a

little　less　than　o　fr。　50　per　head　of　the　inhabitants。〃



＇10＇　Ibid。；　I。；　367　（on　the　tax　on　doors　and　windows）。　According　to

the　population　of　the　commune；　this　is　from　0　fr。　30　to　1　fr。　for　each

opening；　from　0　fr。　45　to　1　fr。　50　for　two　openings；　from　0　fr。　90　to

4　fr。　50　for　three　openings；　from　1　fr。　60　to　6　fr。　40　for　four

openings；　and　from　2　fr。　50　to　8　fr。　50　for　five　openings。　The　first

of　these　rates　is　applied　to　all　communes　of　less　than　5000　souls。　We

see　that　the　poor　man；　especially　the　poor　peasant；　is　considered；　the

tax　on　him　is　progressive　in　an　inverse　sense。



＇11＇　De　Foville；　　〃La　France　Economique〃　（1887）；　p。59：　〃Our　14；500

charity　bureaux　gave　assistance　in　1883　to　1；405；500　persons；　。　。　。　。

as；　in　reality；　the　population　of　the　communes　aided　（by　them）　is　only

22；000；000；　the　proportion　of　the　registered　poor　amounts　to　over　six

per　cent。〃



＇12＇　Paul　Leroy…Beaulieu；　〃　Essai　sur　la　répartition　des　richesses；〃

p。174；　et　seq。　…　In　1851；　the　number　of　land…owners　in　France　was

estimated　at　7；800；000。　Out　of　these；　three　millions　were　relieved　of

the　land　tax；　as　indigent；　and　their　quotas　were　considered　as

irrecoverable。



＇13＇　Paul　Leroy…Beaulieu；　〃Traité　de　la　science　des　finances；〃　p。721。



＇14＇　De　Foville；　p。419。　　（In　1889。）



＇15＇