a history of science-1-第53节

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g　both　credulousness　as　to　matters　of　fact　and　pseudo…scientific　explanation　of　alleged　facts。　The　modern　interpreter　may　suppose　that　a　violent　thunderstorm　came　up　during　the　course　of　a　battle　between　the　Romans　and　the　so…called　barbarians；　and　that　owing　to　the　local　character　of　the　storm；　or　a　chance　discharge　of　lightning；　the　barbarians　suffered　more　than　their　opponents。　We　may　well　question　whether　the　philosophical　emperor　himself　put　any　other　interpretation　than　this　upon　the　incident。　But；　on　the　other　hand；　we　need　not　doubt　that　the　major　part　of　his　soldiers　would　very　readily　accept　such　an　explanation　as　that　given　by　Dion　Cassius；　just　as　most　readers　of　a　few　centuries　later　would　accept　the　explanation　of　Xiphilinus。　It　is　well　to　bear　this　thought　in　mind　in　considering　the　static　period　of　science　upon　which　we　are　entering。　We　shall　perhaps　best　understand　this　period；　and　its　seeming　retrogressions；　if　we　suppose　that　the　average　man　of　the　Middle　Ages　was　no　more　credulous；　no　more　superstitious；　than　the　average　Roman　of　an　earlier　period　or　than　the　average　Greek；　though　the　precise　complexion　of　his　credulity　had　changed　under　the　influence　of　Oriental　ideas；　as　we　have　just　seen　illustrated　by　the　narrative　of　Xiphilinus。

APPENDIX　REFERENCE　LIST；　NOTES；　AND　BIBLIOGRAPHIES

CHAPTER　I。　PREHISTORIC　SCIENCE　Length　of　the　Prehistoric　Period。It　is　of　course　quite　impossible　to　reduce　the　prehistoric　period　to　any　definite　number　of　years。　There　are；　however；　numerous　bits　of　evidence　that　enable　an　anthropologist　to　make　rough　estimates　as　to　the　relative　lengths　of　the　different　periods　into　which　prehistoric　time　is　divided。　Gabriel　de　Mortillet；　one　of　the　most　industrious　students　of　prehistoric　archaeology；　ventured　to　give　a　tentative　estimate　as　to　the　numbers　of　years　involved　in　each　period。　He　of　course　claimed　for　this　nothing　more　than　the　value　of　a　scientific　guess。　It　is；　however；　a　guess　based　on　a　very　careful　study　of　all　data　at　present　available。　Mortillet　divides　the　prehistoric　period；　as　a　whole；　into　four　epochs。　The　first　of　these　is　the　preglacial；　which　he　estimates　as　comprising　seventy…eight　thousand　years；　the　second　is　the　glacial；　covering　one　hundred　thousand　years；　then　follows　what　he　terms　the　Solutreen；　which　numbers　eleven　thousand　years；　and；　finally；　the　Magdalenien；　comprising　thirty…three　thousand　years。　This　gives；　for　the　prehistoric　period　proper；　a　term　of　about　two　hundred　and　twenty…two　thousand　years。　Add　to　this　perhaps　twelve　thousand　years　ushering　in　the　civilization　of　Egypt；　and　the　six　thousand　years　of　stable；　sure　chronology　of　the　historical　period；　and　we　have　something　like　two　hundred　and　thirty　thousand　or　two　hundred　and　forty　thousand　years　as　the　age　of　man。　〃These　figures；〃　says　Mortillet；　〃are　certainly　not　exaggerated。　It　is　even　probable　that　they　are　below　the　truth。　Constantly　new　discoveries　are　being　made　that　tend　to　remove　farther　back　the　date　of　man's　appearance。〃　We　see；　then；　according　to　this　estimate；　that　about　a　quarter　of　a　million　years　have　elapsed　since　man　evolved　to　a　state　that　could　properly　be　called　human。　This　guess　is　as　good　as　another；　and　it　may　advantageously　be　kept　in　mind；　as　it　will　enable　us　all　along　to　understand　better　than　we　might　otherwise　be　able　to　do　the　tremendous　force　of　certain　prejudices　and　preconceptions　which　recent　man　inherited　from　his　prehistoric　ancestor。　Ideas　which　had　passed　current　as　unquestioned　truths　for　one　hundred　thousand　years　or　so　are　not　easily　cast　aside。　In　going　back；　in　imagination；　to　the　beginning　of　the　prehistoric　period；　we　must　of　course　reflect；　in　accordance　with　modern　ideas　on　the　subject；　that　there　was　no　year；　no　millennium　even；　when　it　could　be　said　expressly：　〃This　being　was　hitherto　a　primate；　he　is　now　a　man。〃　The　transition　period　must　have　been　enormously　long；　and　the　changes　from　generation　to　generation；　even　from　century　to　century；　must　have　been　very　slight。　In　speaking　of　the　extent　of　the　age　of　man　this　must　be　borne　in　mind：　it　must　be　recalled　that；　even　if　the　period　were　not　vague　for　other　reasons；　the　vagueness　of　its　beginning　must　make　it　indeterminate。　Bibliographical　Notes。A　great　mass　of　literature　has　been　produced　in　recent　years　dealing　with　various　phases　of　the　history　of　prehistoric　man。　No　single　work　known　to　the　writer　deals　comprehensively　with　the　scientific　attainments　of　early　man；　indeed；　the　subject　is　usually　ignored；　except　where　practical　phases　of　the　mechanical　arts　are　in　question。　But　of　course　any　attempt　to　consider　the　condition　of　primitive　man　talies　into　account；　by　inference　at　least；　his　knowledge　and　attainments。　Therefore；　most　works　on　anthropology；　ethnology；　and　primitive　culture　may　be　expected　to　throw　some　light　on　our　present　subject。　Works　dealing　with　the　social　and　mental　conditions　of　existing　savages　are　also　of　importance；　since　it　is　now　an　accepted　belief　that　the　ancestors　of　civilized　races　evolved　along　similar　lines　and　passed　through　corresponding　stages　of　nascent　culture。　Herbert　Spencer's　Descriptive　Sociology　presents　an　unequalled　mass　of　facts　regarding　existing　primitive　races；　but；　unfortunately；　its　inartistic　method　of　arrangement　makes　it　repellent　to　the　general　reader。　E。　B。　Tyler's　Primitive　Culture　and　Anthropology；　Lord　Avebury's　Prehistoric　Times；　The　Origin　of　Civilization；　and　The　Primitive　Condition　of　Man；　W。　Boyd　Dawkin's　Cave…Hunting　and　Early　Man　in　Britain；　and　Edward　Clodd's　Childhood　of　the　World　and　Story　of　Primitive　Man　are　deservedly　popular。　Paul　Topinard's　Elements　d'Anthropologie　Generale　is　one　of　the　best…known　and　most　comprehensive　French　works　on　the　technical　phases　of　anthropology；　but　Mortillet's　Le　Prehistorique　has　a　more　popular　interest；　owing　to　its　chapters　on　primitive　industries；　though　this　work　also　contains　much　that　is　rather　technical。　Among　periodicals；　the　Revue　de　l'Ecole　d'Anthropologie　de　Paris；　published　by　the　professors；　treats　of　all　phases　of　anthropology；　and　the　American　Anthropologist；　edited　by　F。　W。　Hodge　for　the　American　Anthropological　Association；　and　intended　as　〃a　medium　of　communication　between　students　of　all　branches　of　anthropology；〃　contains　much　that　is　of　interest　from　the　present　stand…point。　The　last…named　journal　devotes　a　good　deal　of　space　to　Indian　languages。

CHAPTER　II。　EGYPTIAN　SCIENCE　1　（p。　34）。　Sir　J。　Norman　Lockyer；　The　Dawn　of　Astronomy；　a　study　of　the　temple　worship　and　mythology　of　the　ancient　Egyptians；　London；　1894。　2　（p。　43）。　G。　Maspero；　Histoire　Ancie…nne　des　Peuples　de　l'Orient　Classique；　Paris；　1895。　Translated　as　（1）　The　Dawn　of　Civilization；　（2）　The　Struggle　of　the　Nations；　（3）　The　Passing　of　the　Empires；　3　vols。；　London　and　New　York；　1894…1900。　Professor　Maspero　is　one　of　the　most　famous　of　living　Orientalists。　His　most　important　special　studies　have　to　do　with　Egyptology；　but　his　writings　cover　the　entire　field　of　Oriental　antiquity。　He　is　a　notable　stylist；　and　his　works　are　at　once　readable　and　authoritative。　3　（p。　44）。　Adolf　Erman；　Life　in　Ancient　Egypt；　London；　1894；　p。　352。　（Translated　from　the　original　German　work　entitled　Aegypten　und　aegyptisches　Leben　in　Alterthum；　Tilbigen；　1887。）　An　altogether　admirable　work；　full　of　interest　for　the　general　reader；　though　based　on　the　most　erudite　studies。　4　（p。　47）。　Erman；　op。　cit。；　pp。　356；　357。　5　（p。　48）。　Erman；　op。　cit。；　p。　357。　The　work　on　Egyptian　medicine　here　referred　to　is　Georg　Ebers'　edition　of　an　Egyptian　document　discovered　by　the　explorer　whose　name　it　bears。　It　remains　the　most　important　source　of　our　knowledge　of　Egyptian　medicine。　As　mentioned　in　the　text；　this　document　dates　from　the　eighteenth　dynastythat　is　to　say；　from　about　the　fifteenth　or　sixteenth　century；　B。C。；　a　relatively　late　period　of　Egyptian　history。　6　（p。　49）。　Erman；　op。　cit。；　p。　357。　7　（p。　50）。　The　History　of　Herodotus；　pp。　85…90。　There　are　numerous　translations　of　the　famous　work　of　the　〃father　of　history；〃　one　of　the　most　recent　and　authoritative　being　that　of　G。　C。　Macaulay；　M。A。；　in　two　volumes；　Macmillan　&　Co。；　London　and　New　York；　1890。　8　（p。　50）。　The　Historical　Library　of　Diodorus　the　Sicilian；　London；　1700。　This　most　famous　of　ancient　world　histories　is　difficult　to　obtain　in　an　English　version。　The　most　recently　published　translation　known　to　the　writer　is　that　of　G。　Booth；　London；　1814。　9　（p。　51）。　Erman；　op。　cit。；　p。　357。　10　（p。　52）。　The　Papyrus　Rhind　is　a　sort　of　mathematical　hand…book　of　the　ancient　Egyptians；　it　was　made　in　the　time　of　the　Hyksos　Kings　（about　2000　B。C。）；　but　is　a　copy　of　an　older　book。　It　is　now　preserved　in　the　British　Museum。　The　most　accessible　recent　sources　of　information　as　to　the　social　conditions　of　the　ancient　Egyptians　are　the　works　of　Maspero　and　Erman；　above　mentioned；　and　the　various　publications　of　W。　M。　Flinders　Petrie；　The　Pyramids　and　Temples　of　Gizeh；　London；　1883；　Tanis　I。；　London；　1885；　Tanis　H。；　Nebesheh；　and　Defe…nnel；　London；　1887；　Ten　Years'　Diggings；　London；　1892；　Syria　and　Egypt　from　the　Tel…el…Amar…na　Letters；　London；　1898；　etc。　The　various　works　of　Professor　Petrie；　recording　his　explorations　from　year　to　year；　give　the　fullest　available　insight　into　Egyptian　archaeology。　CHAPTER　II