Ì«×ÓүС˵Íø > Ó¢Óïµç×ÓÊé > a history of science-1 >

µÚ45½Ú

a history of science-1-µÚ45½Ú

С˵£º a history of science-1 ×ÖÊý£º ÿҳ4000×Ö

°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡û »ò ¡ú ¿É¿ìËÙÉÏÏ·­Ò³£¬°´¼üÅÌÉ쵀 Enter ¼ü¿É»Øµ½±¾ÊéĿ¼ҳ£¬°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡ü ¿É»Øµ½±¾Ò³¶¥²¿£¡
¡ª¡ª¡ª¡ªÎ´ÔĶÁÍꣿ¼ÓÈëÊéÇ©ÒѱãÏ´μÌÐøÔĶÁ£¡



ppers£»¡¡who¡¡probably¡¡had¡¡entered¡¡the¡¡temple¡¡through¡¡doors¡¡miraculously¡¡opened£»¡¡and¡¡who¡¡now¡¡witnessed¡¡this¡¡seemingly¡¡intelligent¡¡response¡¡of¡¡a¡¡machine£»¡¡the¡¡result¡¡must¡¡have¡¡seemed¡¡mystifying¡¡enough£»¡¡and£»¡¡indeed£»¡¡for¡¡us¡¡also£»¡¡when¡¡we¡¡consider¡¡how¡¡relatively¡¡crude¡¡was¡¡the¡¡mechanical¡¡knowledge¡¡of¡¡the¡¡time£»¡¡this¡¡must¡¡seem¡¡nothing¡¡less¡¡than¡¡marvellous¡£¡¡As¡¡in¡¡imagination¡¡we¡¡walk¡¡up¡¡to¡¡the¡¡sacred¡¡tank£»¡¡drop¡¡our¡¡drachma¡¡in¡¡the¡¡slot£»¡¡and¡¡hold¡¡our¡¡hand¡¡for¡¡the¡¡spurt¡¡of¡¡holy¡­water£»¡¡can¡¡we¡¡realize¡¡that¡¡this¡¡is¡¡the¡¡land¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Pharaohs£»¡¡not¡¡England¡¡or¡¡America£»¡¡that¡¡the¡¡kingdom¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Ptolemies¡¡is¡¡still¡¡at¡¡its¡¡height£»¡¡that¡¡the¡¡republic¡¡of¡¡Rome¡¡is¡¡mistress¡¡of¡¡the¡¡world£»¡¡that¡¡all¡¡Europe¡¡north¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Alps¡¡is¡¡inhabited¡¡solely¡¡by¡¡barbarians£»¡¡that¡¡Cleopatra¡¡and¡¡Julius¡¡Caesar¡¡are¡¡yet¡¡unborn£»¡¡that¡¡the¡¡Christian¡¡era¡¡has¡¡not¡¡yet¡¡begun£¿¡¡Truly£»¡¡it¡¡seems¡¡as¡¡if¡¡there¡¡could¡¡be¡¡no¡¡new¡¡thing¡¡under¡¡the¡¡sun¡£

X¡£¡¡SCIENCE¡¡OF¡¡THE¡¡ROMAN¡¡PERIOD¡¡We¡¡have¡¡seen¡¡that¡¡the¡¡third¡¡century¡¡B¡£C¡£¡¡was¡¡a¡¡time¡¡when¡¡Alexandrian¡¡science¡¡was¡¡at¡¡its¡¡height£»¡¡but¡¡that¡¡the¡¡second¡¡century¡¡produced¡¡also¡¡in¡¡Hipparchus¡¡at¡¡least¡¡one¡¡investigator¡¡of¡¡the¡¡very¡¡first¡¡rank£»¡¡though£»¡¡to¡¡be¡¡sure£»¡¡Hipparchus¡¡can¡¡be¡¡called¡¡an¡¡Alexandrian¡¡only¡¡by¡¡courtesy¡£¡¡In¡¡the¡¡ensuing¡¡generations¡¡the¡¡Greek¡¡capital¡¡at¡¡the¡¡mouth¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Nile¡¡continued¡¡to¡¡hold¡¡its¡¡place¡¡as¡¡the¡¡centre¡¡of¡¡scientific¡¡and¡¡philosophical¡¡thought¡£¡¡The¡¡kingdom¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Ptolemies¡¡still¡¡flourished¡¡with¡¡at¡¡least¡¡the¡¡outward¡¡appearances¡¡of¡¡its¡¡old¡­time¡¡glory£»¡¡and¡¡a¡¡company¡¡of¡¡grammarians¡¡and¡¡commentators¡¡of¡¡no¡¡small¡¡merit¡¡could¡¡always¡¡be¡¡found¡¡in¡¡the¡¡service¡¡of¡¡the¡¡famous¡¡museum¡¡and¡¡library£»¡¡but¡¡the¡¡whole¡¡aspect¡¡of¡¡world¡­history¡¡was¡¡rapidly¡¡changing¡£¡¡Greece£»¡¡after¡¡her¡¡brief¡¡day¡¡of¡¡political¡¡supremacy£»¡¡was¡¡sinking¡¡rapidly¡¡into¡¡desuetude£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡hard¡­headed¡¡Roman¡¡in¡¡the¡¡West¡¡was¡¡making¡¡himself¡¡master¡¡everywhere¡£¡¡While¡¡Hipparchus¡¡of¡¡Rhodes¡¡was¡¡in¡¡his¡¡prime£»¡¡Corinth£»¡¡the¡¡last¡¡stronghold¡¡of¡¡the¡¡main¡­land¡¡of¡¡Greece£»¡¡had¡¡fallen¡¡before¡¡the¡¡prowess¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Roman£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡kingdom¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Ptolemies£»¡¡though¡¡still¡¡nominally¡¡free£»¡¡had¡¡begun¡¡to¡¡come¡¡within¡¡the¡¡sphere¡¡of¡¡Roman¡¡influence¡£¡¡Just¡¡what¡¡share¡¡these¡¡political¡¡changes¡¡had¡¡in¡¡changing¡¡the¡¡aspect¡¡of¡¡Greek¡¡thought¡¡is¡¡a¡¡question¡¡regarding¡¡which¡¡difference¡¡of¡¡opinion¡¡might¡¡easily¡¡prevail£»¡¡but¡¡there¡¡can¡¡be¡¡no¡¡question¡¡that£»¡¡for¡¡one¡¡reason¡¡or¡¡another£»¡¡the¡¡Alexandrian¡¡school¡¡as¡¡a¡¡creative¡¡centre¡¡went¡¡into¡¡a¡¡rapid¡¡decline¡¡at¡¡about¡¡the¡¡time¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Roman¡¡rise¡¡to¡¡world¡­power¡£¡¡There¡¡are¡¡some¡¡distinguished¡¡names£»¡¡but£»¡¡as¡¡a¡¡general¡¡rule£»¡¡the¡¡spirit¡¡of¡¡the¡¡times¡¡is¡¡reminiscent¡¡rather¡¡than¡¡creative£»¡¡the¡¡workers¡¡tend¡¡to¡¡collate¡¡the¡¡researches¡¡of¡¡their¡¡predecessors¡¡rather¡¡than¡¡to¡¡make¡¡new¡¡and¡¡original¡¡researches¡¡for¡¡themselves¡£¡¡Eratosthenes£»¡¡the¡¡inventive¡¡world¡­measurer£»¡¡was¡¡succeeded¡¡by¡¡Strabo£»¡¡the¡¡industrious¡¡collator¡¡of¡¡facts£»¡¡Aristarchus¡¡and¡¡Hipparchus£»¡¡the¡¡originators¡¡of¡¡new¡¡astronomical¡¡methods£»¡¡were¡¡succeeded¡¡by¡¡Ptolemy£»¡¡the¡¡perfecter¡¡of¡¡their¡¡methods¡¡and¡¡the¡¡systematizer¡¡of¡¡their¡¡knowledge¡£¡¡Meanwhile£»¡¡in¡¡the¡¡West£»¡¡Rome¡¡never¡¡became¡¡a¡¡true¡¡culture¡­centre¡£¡¡The¡¡great¡¡genius¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Roman¡¡was¡¡political£»¡¡the¡¡Augustan¡¡Age¡¡produced¡¡a¡¡few¡¡great¡¡historians¡¡and¡¡poets£»¡¡but¡¡not¡¡a¡¡single¡¡great¡¡philosopher¡¡or¡¡creative¡¡devotee¡¡of¡¡science¡£¡¡Cicero£»¡¡Lucian£»¡¡Seneca£»¡¡Marcus¡¡Aurelius£»¡¡give¡¡us¡¡at¡¡best¡¡a¡¡reflection¡¡of¡¡Greek¡¡philosophy¡£¡¡Pliny£»¡¡the¡¡one¡¡world¡­famous¡¡name¡¡in¡¡the¡¡scientific¡¡annals¡¡of¡¡Rome£»¡¡can¡¡lay¡¡claim¡¡to¡¡no¡¡higher¡¡credit¡¡than¡¡that¡¡of¡¡a¡¡marvellously¡¡industrious¡¡collector¡¡of¡¡factsthe¡¡compiler¡¡of¡¡an¡¡encyclopaedia¡¡which¡¡contains¡¡not¡¡one¡¡creative¡¡touch¡£¡¡All¡¡in¡¡all£»¡¡then£»¡¡this¡¡epoch¡¡of¡¡Roman¡¡domination¡¡is¡¡one¡¡that¡¡need¡¡detain¡¡the¡¡historian¡¡of¡¡science¡¡but¡¡a¡¡brief¡¡moment¡£¡¡With¡¡the¡¡culmination¡¡of¡¡Greek¡¡effort¡¡in¡¡the¡¡so¡­called¡¡Hellenistic¡¡period¡¡we¡¡have¡¡seen¡¡ancient¡¡science¡¡at¡¡its¡¡climax¡£¡¡The¡¡Roman¡¡period¡¡is¡¡but¡¡a¡¡time¡¡of¡¡transition£»¡¡marking£»¡¡as¡¡it¡¡were£»¡¡a¡¡plateau¡¡on¡¡the¡¡slope¡¡between¡¡those¡¡earlier¡¡heights¡¡and¡¡the¡¡deep£»¡¡dark¡¡valleys¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Middle¡¡Ages¡£¡¡Yet¡¡we¡¡cannot¡¡quite¡¡disregard¡¡the¡¡efforts¡¡of¡¡such¡¡workers¡¡as¡¡those¡¡we¡¡have¡¡just¡¡named¡£¡¡Let¡¡us¡¡take¡¡a¡¡more¡¡specific¡¡glance¡¡at¡¡their¡¡accomplishments¡£

STRABO¡¡THE¡¡GEOGRAPHER¡¡The¡¡earliest¡¡of¡¡these¡¡workers¡¡in¡¡point¡¡of¡¡time¡¡is¡¡Strabo¡£¡¡This¡¡most¡¡famous¡¡of¡¡ancient¡¡geographers¡¡was¡¡born¡¡in¡¡Amasia£»¡¡Pontus£»¡¡about¡¡63¡¡B¡£C¡££»¡¡and¡¡lived¡¡to¡¡the¡¡year¡¡24¡¡A¡£D¡££»¡¡living£»¡¡therefore£»¡¡in¡¡the¡¡age¡¡of¡¡Caesar¡¡and¡¡Augustus£»¡¡during¡¡which¡¡the¡¡final¡¡transformation¡¡in¡¡the¡¡political¡¡position¡¡of¡¡the¡¡kingdom¡¡of¡¡Egypt¡¡was¡¡effected¡£¡¡The¡¡name¡¡of¡¡Strabo¡¡in¡¡a¡¡modified¡¡form¡¡has¡¡become¡¡popularized¡¡through¡¡a¡¡curious¡¡circumstance¡£¡¡The¡¡geographer£»¡¡it¡¡appears£»¡¡was¡¡afflicted¡¡with¡¡a¡¡peculiar¡¡squint¡¡of¡¡the¡¡eyes£»¡¡hence¡¡the¡¡name¡¡strabismus£»¡¡which¡¡the¡¡modern¡¡oculist¡¡applies¡¡to¡¡that¡¡particular¡¡infirmity¡£¡¡Fortunately£»¡¡the¡¡great¡¡geographer¡¡has¡¡not¡¡been¡¡forced¡¡to¡¡depend¡¡upon¡¡hearsay¡¡evidence¡¡for¡¡recognition¡£¡¡His¡¡comprehensive¡¡work¡¡on¡¡geography¡¡has¡¡been¡¡preserved¡¡in¡¡its¡¡entirety£»¡¡being¡¡one¡¡of¡¡the¡¡few¡¡expansive¡¡classical¡¡writings¡¡of¡¡which¡¡this¡¡is¡¡true¡£¡¡The¡¡other¡¡writings¡¡of¡¡Strabo£»¡¡however£»¡¡including¡¡certain¡¡histories¡¡of¡¡which¡¡reports¡¡have¡¡come¡¡down¡¡to¡¡us£»¡¡are¡¡entirely¡¡lost¡£¡¡The¡¡geography¡¡is¡¡in¡¡many¡¡ways¡¡a¡¡remarkable¡¡book¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡not£»¡¡however£»¡¡a¡¡work¡¡in¡¡which¡¡any¡¡important¡¡new¡¡principles¡¡are¡¡involved¡£¡¡Rather¡¡is¡¡it¡¡typical¡¡of¡¡its¡¡age¡¡in¡¡that¡¡it¡¡is¡¡an¡¡elaborate¡¡compilation¡¡and¡¡a¡¡critical¡¡review¡¡of¡¡the¡¡labors¡¡of¡¡Strabo's¡¡predecessors¡£¡¡Doubtless¡¡it¡¡contains¡¡a¡¡vast¡¡deal¡¡of¡¡new¡¡information¡¡as¡¡to¡¡the¡¡details¡¡of¡¡geographyprecise¡¡areas¡¡and¡¡distance£»¡¡questions¡¡of¡¡geographical¡¡locations¡¡as¡¡to¡¡latitude¡¡and¡¡zones£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡like¡£¡¡But¡¡however¡¡important¡¡these¡¡details¡¡may¡¡have¡¡been¡¡from¡¡a¡¡contemporary¡¡stand¡­point£»¡¡they£»¡¡of¡¡course£»¡¡can¡¡have¡¡nothing¡¡more¡¡than¡¡historical¡¡interest¡¡to¡¡posterity¡£¡¡The¡¡value¡¡of¡¡the¡¡work¡¡from¡¡our¡¡present¡¡stand¡­point¡¡is¡¡chiefly¡¡due¡¡to¡¡the¡¡criticisms¡¡which¡¡Strabo¡¡passes¡¡upon¡¡his¡¡forerunners£»¡¡and¡¡to¡¡the¡¡incidental¡¡historical¡¡and¡¡scientific¡¡references¡¡with¡¡which¡¡his¡¡work¡¡abounds¡£¡¡Being¡¡written¡¡in¡¡this¡¡closing¡¡period¡¡of¡¡ancient¡¡progress£»¡¡and¡¡summarizing£»¡¡as¡¡it¡¡does£»¡¡in¡¡full¡¡detail¡¡the¡¡geographical¡¡knowledge¡¡of¡¡the¡¡time£»¡¡it¡¡serves¡¡as¡¡an¡¡important¡¡guide¡­mark¡¡for¡¡the¡¡student¡¡of¡¡the¡¡progress¡¡of¡¡scientific¡¡thought¡£¡¡We¡¡cannot¡¡do¡¡better¡¡than¡¡briefly¡¡to¡¡follow¡¡Strabo¡¡in¡¡his¡¡estimates¡¡and¡¡criticisms¡¡of¡¡the¡¡work¡¡of¡¡his¡¡predecessors£»¡¡taking¡¡note¡¡thus¡¡of¡¡the¡¡point¡¡of¡¡view¡¡from¡¡which¡¡he¡¡himself¡¡looked¡¡out¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡world¡£¡¡We¡¡shall¡¡thus¡¡gain¡¡a¡¡clear¡¡idea¡¡as¡¡to¡¡the¡¡state¡¡of¡¡scientific¡¡geography¡¡towards¡¡the¡¡close¡¡of¡¡the¡¡classical¡¡epoch¡£¡¡¡¨If¡¡the¡¡scientific¡¡investigation¡¡of¡¡any¡¡subject¡¡be¡¡the¡¡proper¡¡avocation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡philosopher£»¡¨¡¡says¡¡Strabo£»¡¡¡¨geography£»¡¡the¡¡science¡¡of¡¡which¡¡we¡¡propose¡¡to¡¡treat£»¡¡is¡¡certainly¡¡entitled¡¡to¡¡a¡¡high¡¡place£»¡¡and¡¡this¡¡is¡¡evident¡¡from¡¡many¡¡considerations¡£¡¡They¡¡who¡¡first¡¡undertook¡¡to¡¡handle¡¡the¡¡matter¡¡were¡¡distinguished¡¡men¡£¡¡Homer£»¡¡Anaximander¡¡the¡¡Milesian£»¡¡and¡¡Hecaeus¡¡£¨his¡¡fellow¡­citizen¡¡according¡¡to¡¡Eratosthenes£©£»¡¡Democritus£»¡¡Eudoxus£»¡¡Dicaearchus£»¡¡and¡¡Ephorus£»¡¡with¡¡many¡¡others£»¡¡and¡¡after¡¡these£»¡¡Eratosthenes£»¡¡Polybius£»¡¡and¡¡Posidonius£»¡¡all¡¡of¡¡them¡¡philosophers¡£¡¡Nor¡¡is¡¡the¡¡great¡¡learning¡¡through¡¡which¡¡alone¡¡this¡¡subject¡¡can¡¡be¡¡approached¡¡possessed¡¡by¡¡any¡¡but¡¡a¡¡person¡¡acquainted¡¡with¡¡both¡¡human¡¡and¡¡divine¡¡things£»¡¡and¡¡these¡¡attainments¡¡constitute¡¡what¡¡is¡¡called¡¡philosophy¡£¡¡In¡¡addition¡¡to¡¡its¡¡vast¡¡importance¡¡in¡¡regard¡¡to¡¡social¡¡life¡¡and¡¡the¡¡art¡¡of¡¡government£»¡¡geography¡¡unfolds¡¡to¡¡us¡¡a¡¡celestial¡¡phenomena£»¡¡acquaints¡¡us¡¡with¡¡the¡¡occupants¡¡of¡¡the¡¡land¡¡and¡¡ocean£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡vegetation£»¡¡fruits£»¡¡and¡¡peculiarities¡¡of¡¡the¡¡various¡¡quarters¡¡of¡¡the¡¡earth£»¡¡a¡¡knowledge¡¡of¡¡which¡¡marks¡¡him¡¡who¡¡cultivates¡¡it¡¡as¡¡a¡¡man¡¡earnest¡¡in¡¡the¡¡great¡¡problem¡¡of¡¡life¡¡and¡¡happiness¡£¡¨¡¡Strabo¡¡goes¡¡on¡¡to¡¡say¡¡that¡¡in¡¡common¡¡with¡¡other¡¡critics£»¡¡including¡¡Hipparchus£»¡¡he¡¡regards¡¡Homer¡¡as¡¡the¡¡first¡¡great¡¡geographer¡£¡¡He¡¡has¡¡much¡¡to¡¡say¡¡on¡¡the¡¡geographical¡¡knowledge¡¡of¡¡the¡¡bard£»¡¡but¡¡this¡¡need¡¡not¡¡detain¡¡us¡£¡¡We¡¡are¡¡chiefly¡¡concerned¡¡with¡¡his¡¡comment¡¡upon¡¡his¡¡more¡¡recent¡¡predecessors£»¡¡beginning¡¡with¡¡Eratosthenes¡£¡¡The¡¡constant¡¡reference¡¡to¡¡this¡¡worker¡¡shows¡¡the¡¡important¡¡position¡¡which¡¡he¡¡held¡£¡¡Strabo¡¡appears¡¡neither¡¡as¡¡detractor¡¡nor¡¡as¡¡partisan£»¡¡but¡¡as¡¡one¡¡who¡¡earnestly¡¡desires¡¡the¡¡truth¡£¡¡Sometimes¡¡he¡¡seems¡¡captious¡¡in¡¡his¡¡criticisms¡¡regarding¡¡some¡¡detail£»¡¡nor¡¡is¡¡he¡¡always¡¡correct¡¡in¡¡his¡¡emendations¡¡of¡¡the¡¡labors¡¡of¡¡others£»¡¡but£»¡¡on¡¡the¡¡whole£»¡¡his¡¡work¡¡is¡¡marked¡¡by¡¡an¡¡evident¡¡attempt¡¡at¡¡fairness¡£¡¡In¡¡reading¡¡his¡¡book£»¡¡however£»¡¡one¡¡is¡¡forced¡¡to¡¡the¡¡conclusion¡¡that¡¡Strabo¡¡is¡¡an¡¡investigator¡¡of¡¡details£»¡¡not¡¡an¡¡original¡¡thinker¡£¡¡He¡¡seems¡¡more¡¡concerned¡¡with¡¡precise¡¡measurements¡¡than¡¡with¡¡questionings¡¡as¡¡to¡¡the¡¡open¡¡problems¡¡of¡¡his¡¡science¡£¡¡Whatever¡¡he¡¡accepts£»¡¡then£»¡¡may¡¡be¡¡taken¡¡as¡¡virtually¡¡the¡¡stock¡¡doctrine¡¡of¡¡the¡¡period¡£¡¡¡¨As¡¡the¡¡size¡¡of¡¡the¡¡earth£»¡¨¡¡he¡¡says£»¡¡¡¨has¡¡been¡¡demonstrated¡¡by¡¡other¡¡writers£»¡¡we¡¡shall¡¡here¡¡take¡¡for¡¡granted¡¡and¡¡receive¡¡as¡¡accurate¡¡what¡¡they¡¡have¡¡advanced¡£¡¡We¡¡shall¡¡also¡¡assume¡¡that¡¡the¡¡earth¡¡is¡¡spheroidal£»¡¡that¡¡its¡¡surface¡¡is¡¡likewise¡¡spheroidal¡¡and£»¡¡above¡¡all£»¡¡that¡¡bodies¡¡have¡¡a¡¡tendency¡¡towards¡¡its¡¡centre£»¡¡which¡¡latter¡¡point¡¡is¡¡clear¡¡to¡¡the¡¡perception¡¡of¡¡the¡¡most¡¡average¡¡understanding¡£¡¡However£»¡¡we¡¡may¡¡show¡¡summarily¡¡that¡¡the¡¡earth¡¡is¡¡spheroidal£»¡¡from¡¡the¡¡consideration¡¡that¡¡all¡¡things£»¡¡however¡¡distant£»¡¡tend¡¡to¡¡its¡¡centre£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡every¡¡body¡¡is¡¡attracted¡¡towards¡¡its¡¡centre¡¡by¡¡gravity¡£¡¡This¡¡is¡¡more¡¡distinctly¡¡proved¡¡from¡¡observations¡¡of¡¡the¡¡sea¡¡and¡¡sky£»¡¡for¡¡here¡¡the¡¡evidence¡¡of¡¡the¡¡sen

·µ»ØĿ¼ ÉÏÒ»Ò³ ÏÂÒ»Ò³ »Øµ½¶¥²¿ ÔÞ£¨0£© ²È£¨0£©

Äã¿ÉÄÜϲ»¶µÄ