a history of science-1-第4节

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idea　that　various　members　of　a　tribe　had　been　alive　for　an　indefinite　period。　Without　further　elaborating　the　argument；　it　seems　a　justifiable　inference　that　the　first　conception　primitive　man　would　have　of　his　own　life　would　not　include　the　thought　of　natural　death；　but　would；　conversely；　connote　the　vague　conception　of　endless　life。　Our　own　ancestors；　a　few　generations　removed；　had　not　got　rid　of　this　conception；　as　the　perpetual　quest　of　the　spring　of　eternal　youth　amply　testifies。　A　naturalist　of　our　own　day　has　suggested　that　perhaps　birds　never　die　except　by　violence。　The　thought；　then；　that　man　has　a　term　of　years　beyond　which　〃in　the　nature　of　things；〃　as　the　saying　goes；　he　may　not　live；　would　have　dawned　but　gradually　upon　the　developing　intelligence　of　successive　generations　of　men；　and　we　cannot　feel　sure　that　he　would　fully　have　grasped　the　conception　of　a　〃natural〃　termination　of　human　life　until　he　had　shaken　himself　free　from　the　idea　that　disease　is　always　the　result　of　the　magic　practice　of　an　enemy。　Our　observation　of　historical　man　in　antiquity　makes　it　somewhat　doubtful　whether　this　conception　had　been　attained　before　the　close　of　the　prehistoric　period。　If　it　had；　this　conception　of　the　mortality　of　man　was　one　of　the　most　striking　scientific　inductions　to　which　prehistoric　man　attained。　Incidentally；　it　may　be　noted　that　the　conception　of　eternal　life　for　the　human　body　being　a　more　primitive　idea　than　the　conception　of　natural　death；　the　idea　of　the　immortality　of　the　spirit　would　be　the　most　natural　of　conceptions。　The　immortal　spirit；　indeed；　would　be　but　a　correlative　of　the　immortal　body；　and　the　idea　which　we　shall　see　prevalent　among　the　Egyptians　that　the　soul　persists　only　as　long　as　the　body　is　intactthe　idea　upon　which　the　practice　of　mummifying　the　dead　dependedfinds　a　ready　explanation。　But　this　phase　of　the　subject　carries　us　somewhat　afield。　For　our　present　purpose　it　suffices　to　have　pointed　out　that　the　conception　of　man's　mortalitya　conception　which　now　seems　of　all　others　the　most　natural　and　〃innate〃was　in　all　probability　a　relatively　late　scientific　induction　of　our　primitive　ancestors。　5。　Turning　from　the　consideration　of　the　body　to　its　mental　complement；　we　are　forced　to　admit　that　here；　also；　our　primitive　man　must　have　made　certain　elementary　observations　that　underlie　such　sciences　as　psychology；　mathematics；　and　political　economy。　The　elementary　emotions　associated　with　hunger　and　with　satiety；　with　love　and　with　hatred；　must　have　forced　themselves　upon　the　earliest　intelligence　that　reached　the　plane　of　conscious　self…observation。　The　capacity　to　count；　at　least　to　the　number　four　or　five；　is　within　the　range　of　even　animal　intelligence。　Certain　savages　have　gone　scarcely　farther　than　this；　but　our　primeval　ancestor；　who　was　forging　on　towards　civilization；　had　learned　to　count　his　fingers　and　toes；　and　to　number　objects　about　him　by　fives　and　tens　in　consequence；　before　be　passed　beyond　the　plane　of　numerous　existing　barbarians。　How　much　beyond　this　he　had　gone　we　need　not　attempt　to　inquire；　but　the　relatively　high　development　of　mathematics　in　the　early　historical　period　suggests　that　primeval　man　had　attained　a　not　inconsiderable　knowledge　of　numbers。　The　humdrum　vocation　of　looking　after　a　numerous　progeny　must　have　taught　the　mother　the　rudiments　of　addition　and　subtraction；　and　the　elements　of　multiplication　and　division　are　implied　in　the　capacity　to　carry　on　even　the　rudest　form　of　barter；　such　as　the　various　tribes　must　have　practised　from　an　early　day。　As　to　political　ideas；　even　the　crudest　tribal　life　was　based　on　certain　conceptions　of　ownership；　at　least　of　tribal　ownership；　and　the　application　of　the　principle　of　likeness　and　difference　to　which　we　have　already　referred。　Each　tribe；　of　course；　differed　in　some　regard　from　other　tribes；　and　the　recognition　of　these　differences　implied　in　itself　a　political　classification。　A　certain　tribe　took　possession　of　a　particular　hunting…　ground；　which　became；　for　the　time　being；　its　home；　and　over　which　it　came　to　exercise　certain　rights。　An　invasion　of　this　territory　by　another　tribe　might　lead　to　war；　and　the　banding　together　of　the　members　of　the　tribe　to　repel　the　invader　implied　both　a　recognition　of　communal　unity　and　a　species　of　prejudice　in　favor　of　that　community　that　constituted　a　primitive　patriotism。　But　this　unity　of　action　in　opposing　another　tribe　would　not　prevent　a　certain　rivalry　of　interest　between　the　members　of　the　same　tribe；　which　would　show　itself　more　and　more　prominently　as　the　tribe　increased　in　size。　The　association　of　two　or　more　persons　implies；　always；　the　ascendency　of　some　and　the　subordination　of　others。　Leadership　and　subordination　are　necessary　correlatives　of　difference　of　physical　and　mental　endowment；　and　rivalry　between　leaders　would　inevitably　lead　to　the　formation　of　primitive　political　parties。　With　the　ultimate　success　and　ascendency　of　one　leader；　who　secures　either　absolute　power　or　power　modified　in　accordance　with　the　advice　of　subordinate　leaders；　we　have　the　germs　of　an　elaborate　political　systeman　embryo　science　of　government。　Meanwhile；　the　very　existence　of　such　a　community　implies　the　recognition　on　the　part　of　its　members　of　certain　individual　rights；　the　recognition　of　which　is　essential　to　communal　harmony。　The　right　of　individual　ownership　of　the　various　articles　and　implements　of　every…day　life　must　be　recognized；　or　all　harmony　would　be　at　an　end。　Certain　rules　of　justice　primitive　lawsmust；　by　common　consent；　give　protection　to　the　weakest　members　of　the　community。　Here　are　the　rudiments　of　a　system　of　ethics。　It　may　seem　anomalous　to　speak　of　this　primitive　morality；　this　early　recognition　of　the　principles　of　right　and　wrong；　as　having　any　relation　to　science。　Yet；　rightly　considered；　there　is　no　incongruity　in　such　a　citation。　There　cannot　well　be　a　doubt　that　the　adoption　of　those　broad　principles　of　right　and　wrong　which　underlie　the　entire　structure　of　modern　civilization　was　due　to　scientific　induction；in　other　words；　to　the　belief；　based　on　observation　and　experience；　that　the　principles　implied　were　essential　to　communal　progress。　He　who　has　scanned　the　pageant　of　history　knows　how　often　these　principles　seem　to　be　absent　in　the　intercourse　of　men　and　nations。　Yet　the　ideal　is　always　there　as　a　standard　by　which　all　deeds　are　judged。

It　would　appear；　then；　that　the　entire　superstructure　of　later　science　had　its　foundation　in　the　knowledge　and　practice　of　prehistoric　man。　The　civilization　of　the　historical　period　could　not　have　advanced　as　it　has　had　there　not　been　countless　generations　of　culture　back　of　it。　The　new　principles　of　science　could　not　have　been　evolved　had　there　not　been　great　basal　principles　which　ages　of　unconscious　experiment　had　impressed　upon　the　mind　of　our　race。　Due　meed　of　praise　must　be　given；　then；　to　our　primitive　ancestor　for　his　scientific　accomplishments；　but　justice　demands　that　we　should　look　a　little　farther　and　consider　the　reverse　side　of　the　picture。　We　have　had　to　do；　thus　far；　chiefly　with　the　positive　side　of　accomplishment。　We　have　pointed　out　what　our　primitive　ancestor　knew；　intimating；　perhaps；　the　limitations　of　his　knowledge；　but　we　have　had　little　to　say　of　one　all…important　feature　of　his　scientific　theorizing。　The　feature　in　question　is　based　on　the　highly　scientific　desire　and　propensity　to　find　explanations　for　the　phenomena　of　nature。　Without　such　desire　no　progress　could　be　made。　It　is；　as　we　have　seen；　the　generalizing　from　experience　that　constitutes　real　scientific　progress；　and　yet；　just　as　most　other　good　things　can　be　overdone；　this　scientific　propensity　may　be　carried　to　a　disastrous　excess。　Primeval　man　did　not　escape　this　danger。　He　observed；　he　reasoned；　he　found　explanations；　but　he　did　not　always　discriminate　as　to　the　logicality　of　his　reasonings。　He　failed　to　recognize　the　limitations　of　his　knowledge。　The　observed　uniformity　in　the　sequence　of　certain　events　impressed　on　his　mind　the　idea　of　cause　and　effect。　Proximate　causes　known；　he　sought　remoter　causes；　childlike；　his　inquiring　mind　was　always　asking；　Why？　and；　childlike；　he　demanded　an　explicit　answer。　If　the　forces　of　nature　seemed　to　combat　him；　if　wind　and　rain　opposed　his　progress　and　thunder　and　lightning　seemed　to　menace　his　existence；　he　was　led　irrevocably　to　think　of　those　human　foes　who　warred　with　him；　and　to　see；　back　of　the　warfare　of　the　elements；　an　inscrutable　malevolent　intelligence　which　took　this　method　to　express　its　displeasure。　But　every　other　line　of　scientific　observation　leads　equally；　following　back　a　sequence　of　events；　to　seemingly　causeless　beginnings。　Modern　science　can　explain　the　lightning；　as　it　can　explain　a　great　number　of　the　mysteries　which　the　primeval　intelligence　could　not　penetrate。　But　the　primordial　man　could　not　wait　for　the　revelations　of　scientific　investigation：　he　must　vault　at　once　to　a　final　solution　of　all　scientific　problems。　He　found　his　solution　by　peopling　the　world　with　invisible　forces；　anthropomorphic　in　their　conception；　like　himself　in　their　thought　and　action；　differing　only　in　the　limitations　of　their　powers。　His　own　dream　existence　gave　him　seeming　proof　of　the　existence　of　an　a