a history of science-1-第22节

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espite　its　somewhat　inchoate　character；　this　summary　is　a　most　remarkable　one；　as　a　brief　analysis　of　its　contents　will　show。　It　should　be　explained　that　Alexander　（whose　work　is　now　lost）　is　said　to　have　found　these　dogmas　set　down　in　the　commentaries　of　Pythagoras。　If　this　assertion　be　accepted；　we　are　brought　one　step　nearer　the　philosopher　himself。　The　summary　is　as　follows：

〃That　the　monad　was　the　beginning　of　everything。　From　the　monad　proceeds　an　indefinite　duad；　which　is　subordinate　to　the　monad　as　to　its　cause。　That　from　the　monad　and　the　indefinite　duad　proceed　numbers。　And　from　numbers　signs。　And　from　these　last；　lines　of　which　plane　figures　consist。　And　from　plane　figures　are　derived　solid　bodies。　And　from　solid　bodies　sensible　bodies；　of　which　last　there　are　four　elementsfire；　water；　earth；　and　air。　And　that　the　world；　which　is　indued　with　life　and　intellect；　and　which　is　of　a　spherical　figure；　having　the　earth；　which　is　also　spherical；　and　inhabited　all　over　in　its　centre；＇4＇　results　from　a　combination　of　these　elements；　and　derives　its　motion　from　them；　and　also　that　there　are　antipodes；　and　that　what　is　below；　as　respects　us；　is　above　in　respect　of　them。　〃He　also　taught　that　light　and　darkness；　and　cold　and　heat；　and　dryness　and　moisture；　were　equally　divided　in　the　world；　and　that　while　heat　was　predominant　it　was　summer；　while　cold　had　the　mastery；　it　was　winter；　when　dryness　prevailed；　it　was　spring；　and　when　moisture　preponderated；　winter。　And　while　all　these　qualities　were　on　a　level；　then　was　the　loveliest　season　of　the　year；　of　which　the　flourishing　spring　was　the　wholesome　period；　and　the　season　of　autumn　the　most　pernicious　one。　Of　the　day；　he　said　that　the　flourishing　period　was　the　morning；　and　the　fading　one　the　evening；　on　which　account　that　also　was　the　least　healthy　time。　〃Another　of　his　theories　was　that　the　air　around　the　earth　was　immovable　and　pregnant　with　disease；　and　that　everything　in　it　was　mortal；　but　that　the　upper　air　was　in　perpetual　motion；　and　pure　and　salubrious；　and　that　everything　in　that　was　immortal；　and　on　that　account　divine。　And　that　the　sun　and　the　moon　and　the　stars　were　all　gods；　for　in　them　the　warm　principle　predominates　which　is　the　cause　of　life。　And　that　the　moon　derives　its　light　from　the　sun。　And　that　there　is　a　relationship　between　men　and　the　gods；　because　men　partake　of　the　divine　principle；　on　which　account；　also；　God　exercises　his　providence　for　our　advantage。　Also；　that　Fate　is　the　cause　of　the　arrangement　of　the　world　both　generally　and　particularly。　Moreover；　that　a　ray　from　the　sun　penetrated　both　the　cold　aether　and　the　dense　aether；　and　they　call　the　air　the　cold　aether；　and　the　sea　and　moisture　they　call　the　dense　aether。　And　this　ray　descends　into　the　depths；　and　in　this　way　vivifies　everything。　And　everything　which　partakes　of　the　principle　of　heat　lives；　on　which　account；　also；　plants　are　animated　beings；　but　that　all　living　things　have　not　necessarily　souls。　And　that　the　soul　is　a　something　tom　off　from　the　aether；　both　warm　and　cold；　from　its　partaking　of　the　cold　aether。　And　that　the　soul　is　something　different　from　life。　Also；　that　it　is　immortal；　because　that　from　which　it　has　been　detached　is　immortal。　〃Also；　that　animals　are　born　from　one　another　by　seeds；　and　that　it　is　impossible　for　there　to　be　any　spontaneous　production　by　the　earth。　And　that　seed　is　a　drop　from　the　brain　which　contains　in　itself　a　warm　vapor；　and　that　when　this　is　applied　to　the　womb　it　transmits　virtue　and　moisture　and　blood　from　the　brain；　from　which　flesh　and　sinews　and　bones　and　hair　and　the　whole　body　are　produced。　And　from　the　vapor　is　produced　the　soul；　and　also　sensation。　And　that　the　infant　first　becomes　a　solid　body　at　the　end　of　forty　days；　but；　according　to　the　principles　of　harmony；　it　is　not　perfect　till　seven；　or　perhaps　nine；　or　at　most　ten　months；　and　then　it　is　brought　forth。　And　that　it　contains　in　itself　all　the　principles　of　life；　which　are　all　connected　together；　and　by　their　union　and　combination　form　a　harmonious　whole；　each　of　them　developing　itself　at　the　appointed　time。　〃The　senses　in　general；　and　especially　the　sight；　are　a　vapor　of　excessive　warmth；　and　on　this　account　a　man　is　said　to　see　through　air　and　through　water。　For　the　hot　principle　is　opposed　by　the　cold　one；　since；　if　the　vapor　in　the　eyes　were　cold；　it　would　have　the　same　temperature　as　the　air；　and　so　would　be　dissipated。　As　it　is；　in　some　passages　he　calls　the　eyes　the　gates　of　the　sun；　and　he　speaks　in　a　similar　manner　of　hearing　and　of　the　other　senses。　〃He　also　says　that　the　soul　of　man　is　divided　into　three　parts：　into　intuition　and　reason　and　mind；　and　that　the　first　and　last　divisions　are　found　also　in　other　animals；　but　that　the　middle　one；　reason；　is　only　found　in　man。　And　that　the　chief　abode　of　the　soul　is　in　those　parts　of　the　body　which　are　between　the　heart　and　the　brain。　And　that　that　portion　of　it　which　is　in　the　heart　is　the　mind；　but　that　deliberation　and　reason　reside　in　the　brain。　Moreover；　that　the　senses　are　drops　from　them；　and　that　the　reasoning　sense　is　immortal；　but　the　others　are　mortal。　And　that　the　soul　is　nourished　by　the　blood；　and　that　reasons　are　the　winds　of　the　soul。　That　it　is　invisible；　and　so　are　its　reasons；　since　the　aether　itself　is　invisible。　That　the　links　of　the　soul　are　the　veins　and　the　arteries　and　the　nerves。　But　that　when　it　is　vigorous；　and　is　by　itself　in　a　quiescent　state；　then　its　links　are　words　and　actions。　That　when　it　is　cast　forth　upon　the　earth　it　wanders　about；　resembling　the　body。　Moreover；　that　Mercury　is　the　steward　of　the　souls；　and　that　on　this　account　he　has　the　name　of　Conductor；　and　Commercial；　and　Infernal；　since　it　is　he　who　conducts　the　souls　from　their　bodies；　and　from　earth　and　sea；　and　that　he　conducts　the　pure　souls　to　the　highest　region；　and　that　he　does　not　allow　the　impure　ones　to　approach　them；　nor　to　come　near　one　another；　but　commits　them　to　be　bound　in　indissoluble　fetters　by　the　Furies。　The　Pythagoreans　also　assert　that　the　whole　air　is　full　of　souls；　and　that　these　are　those　which　are　accounted　daemons　and　heroes。　Also；　that　it　is　by　them　that　dreams　are　sent　among　men；　and　also　the　tokens　of　disease　and　health；　these　last；　too；　being　sent　not　only　to　men；　but　to　sheep　also；　and　other　cattle。　Also　that　it　is　they　who　are　concerned　with　purifications　and　expiations　and　all　kinds　of　divination　and　oracular　predictions；　and　things　of　that　kind。〃＇5＇

A　brief　consideration　of　this　summary　of　the　doctrines　of　Pythagoras　will　show　that　it　at　least　outlines　a　most　extraordinary　variety　of　scientific　ideas。　（1）　There　is　suggested　a　theory　of　monads　and　the　conception　of　the　development　from　simple　to　more　complex　bodies；　passing　through　the　stages　of　lines；　plain　figures；　and　solids　to　sensible　bodies。　（2）　The　doctrine　of　the　four　elementsfire；　water；　earth；　and　airas　the　basis　of　all　organisms　is　put　forward。　（3）　The　idea；　not　merely　of　the　sphericity　of　the　earth；　but　an　explicit　conception　of　the　antipodes；　is　expressed。　（4）　A　conception　of　the　sanitary　influence　of　the　air　is　clearly　expressed。　（5）　An　idea　of　the　problems　of　generation　and　heredity　is　shown；　together　with　a　distinct　disavowal　of　the　doctrine　of　spontaneous　generation　a　doctrine　which；　it　may　be　added；　remained　in　vogue；　nevertheless；　for　some　twenty…four　hundred　years　after　the　time　of　Pythagoras。　（6）　A　remarkable　analysis　of　mind　is　made；　and　a　distinction　between　animal　minds　and　the　human　mind　is　based　on　this　analysis。　The　physiological　doctrine　that　the　heart　is　the　organ　of　one　department　of　mind　is　offset　by　the　clear　statement　that　the　remaining　factors　of　mind　reside　in　the　brain。　This　early　recognition　of　brain　as　the　organ　of　mind　must　not　be　forgotten　in　our　later　studies。　It　should　be　recalled；　however；　that　a　Crotonian　physician；　Alemaean；　a　younger　contemporary　of　Pythagoras；　is　also　credited　with　the　same　theory。　（7）　A　knowledge　of　anatomy　is　at　least　vaguely　foreshadowed　in　the　assertion　that　veins；　arteries；　and　nerves　are　the　links　of　the　soul。　In　this　connection　it　should　be　recalled　that　Pythagoras　was　a　practical　physician。　As　against　these　scientific　doctrines；　however；　some　of　them　being　at　least　remarkable　guesses　at　the　truth；　attention　must　be　called　to　the　concluding　paragraph　of　our　quotation；　in　which　the　old　familiar　daemonology　is　outlined；　quite　after　the　Oriental　fashion。　We　shall　have　occasion　to　say　more　as　to　this　phase　of　the　subject　later　on。　Meantime；　before　leaving　Pythagoras；　let　us　note　that　his　practical　studies　of　humanity　led　him　to　assert　the　doctrine　that　〃the　property　of　friends　is　common；　and　that　friendship　is　equality。〃　His　disciples；　we　are　told；　used　to　put　all　their　possessions　together　in　one　store　and　use　them　in　common。　Here；　then；　seemingly；　is　the　doctrine　of　communism　put　to　the　test　of　experiment　at　this　early　day。　If　it　seem　that　reference　to　this　carries　us　beyond　the　bounds　of　science；　it　may　be　replied　that　questions　such　as　this　will　not　lie　beyond　the　bounds　of　the　science　of　the　near　future。

XENOPHANES　AND　PARMENIDES　There　is　a　whimsical　tale　about　Pythagoras；　according　to　which　the　philosopher　was　wont　to　declare　that　in　an　earlier　state　he　had　visited　Hades；　and　had　the