a history of science-1-第20节

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wever；　that　the　gnomon；　which　is　the　rudimentary　sundial；　had　been　known　and　used　from　remote　periods　in　the　Orient；　and　the　most　that　is　probable　is　that　Anaximander　may　have　elaborated　some　special　design；　possibly　the　bowl…　shaped　sundial；　through　which　the　shadow　of　the　gnomon　would　indicate　the　time。　The　same　philosopher　is　said　to　have　made　the　first　sketch　of　a　geographical　map；　but　this　again　is　a　statement　which　modern　researches　have　shown　to　be　fallacious；　since　a　Babylonian　attempt　at　depicting　the　geography　of　the　world　is　still　preserved　to　us　on　a　clay　tablet。　Anaximander　may；　however；　have　been　the　first　Greek　to　make　an　attempt　of　this　kind。　Here　again　the　influence　of　Babylonian　science　upon　the　germinating　Western　thought　is　suggested。　It　is　said　that　Anaximander　departed　from　Thales's　conception　of　the　earth；　and；　it　may　be　added；　from　the　Babylonian　conception　also；　in　that　he　conceived　it　as　a　cylinder；　or　rather　as　a　truncated　cone；　the　upper　end　of　which　is　the　habitable　portion。　This　conception　is　perhaps　the　first　of　these　guesses　through　which　the　Greek　mind　attempted　to　explain　the　apparent　fixity　of　the　earth。　To　ask　what　supports　the　earth　in　space　is　most　natural；　but　the　answer　given　by　Anaximander；　like　that　more　familiar　Greek　solution　which　transformed　the　cone；　or　cylinder；　into　the　giant　Atlas；　is　but　another　illustration　of　that　substitution　of　unwarranted　inference　for　scientific　induction　which　we　have　already　so　often　pointed　out　as　characteristic　of　the　primitive　stages　of　thought。　Anaximander　held　at　least　one　theory　which；　as　vouched　for　by　various　copyists　and　commentators；　entitles　him　to　be　considered　perhaps　the　first　teacher　of　the　idea　of　organic　evolution。　According　to　this　idea；　man　developed　from　a　fishlike　ancestor；　〃growing　up　as　sharks　do　until　able　to　help　himself　and　then　coming　forth　on　dry　land。〃＇1＇　The　thought　here　expressed　finds　its　germ；　perhaps；　in　the　Babylonian　conception　that　everything　came　forth　from　a　chaos　of　waters。　Yet　the　fact　that　the　thought　of　Anaximander　has　come　down　to　posterity　through　such　various　channels　suggests　that　the　Greek　thinker　had　got　far　enough　away　from　the　Oriental　conception　to　make　his　view　seem　to　his　contemporaries　a　novel　and　individual　one。　Indeed；　nothing　we　know　of　the　Oriental　line　of　thought　conveys　any　suggestion　of　the　idea　of　transformation　of　species；　whereas　that　idea　is　distinctly　formulated　in　the　traditional　views　of　Anaximander。

VI。　THE　EARLY　GREEK　PHILOSOPHERS　IN　ITALY　Diogenes　Laertius　tells　a　story　about　a　youth　who；　clad　in　a　purple　toga；　entered　the　arena　at　the　Olympian　games　and　asked　to　compete　with　the　other　youths　in　boxing。　He　was　derisively　denied　admission；　presumably　because　he　was　beyond　the　legitimate　age　for　juvenile　contestants。　Nothing　daunted；　the　youth　entered　the　lists　of　men；　and　turned　the　laugh　on　his　critics　by　coming　off　victor。　The　youth　who　performed　this　feat　was　named　Pythagoras。　He　was　the　same　man；　if　we　may　credit　the　story；　who　afterwards　migrated　to　Italy　and　became　the　founder　of　the　famous　Crotonian　School　of　Philosophy；　the　man　who　developed　the　religion　of　the　Orphic　mysteries；　who　conceived　the　idea　of　the　music　of　the　spheres；　who　promulgated　the　doctrine　of　metempsychosis；　who　first；　perhaps；　of　all　men　clearly　conceived　the　notion　that　this　world　on　which　we　live　is　a　ball　which　moves　in　space　and　which　may　be　habitable　on　every　side。　A　strange　development　that　for　a　stripling　pugilist。　But　we　must　not　forget　that　in　the　Greek　world　athletics　held　a　peculiar　place。　The　chief　winner　of　Olympian　games　gave　his　name　to　an　epoch　（the　ensuing　Olympiad　of　four　years）；　and　was　honored　almost　before　all　others　in　the　land。　A　sound　mind　in　a　sound　body　was　the　motto　of　the　day。　To　excel　in　feats　of　strength　and　dexterity　was　an　accomplishment　that　even　a　philosopher　need　not　scorn。　It　will　be　recalled　that　aeschylus　distinguished　himself　at　the　battle　of　Marathon；　that　Thucydides；　the　greatest　of　Greek　historians；　was　a　general　in　the　Peloponnesian　War；　that　Xenophon；　the　pupil　and　biographer　of　Socrates；　was　chiefly　famed　for　having　led　the　Ten　Thousand　in　the　memorable　campaign　of　Cyrus　the　Younger；　that　Plato　himself　was　credited　with　having　shown　great　aptitude　in　early　life　as　a　wrestler。　If；　then；　Pythagoras　the　philosopher　was　really　the　Pythagoras　who　won　the　boxing　contest；　we　may　suppose　that　in　looking　back　upon　this　athletic　feat　from　the　heights　of　his　priesthoodfor　he　came　to　be　almost　deifiedhe　regarded　it　not　as　an　indiscretion　of　his　youth；　but　as　one　of　the　greatest　achievements　of　his　life。　Not　unlikely　he　recalled　with　pride　that　he　was　credited　with　being　no　less　an　innovator　in　athletics　than　in　philosophy。　At　all　events；　tradition　credits　him　with　the　invention　of　〃scientific〃　boxing。　Was　it　he；　perhaps；　who　taught　the　Greeks　to　strike　a　rising　and　swinging　blow　from　the　hip；　as　depicted　in　the　famous　metopes　of　the　Parthenon？　If　so；　the　innovation　of　Pythagoras　was　as　little　heeded　in　this　regard　in　a　subsequent　age　as　was　his　theory　of　the　motion　of　the　earth；　for　to　strike　a　swinging　blow　from　the　hip；　rather　than　from　the　shoulder；　is　a　trick　which　the　pugilist　learned　anew　in　our　own　day。　But　enough　of　pugilism　and　of　what；　at　best；　is　a　doubtful　tradition。　Our　concern　is　with　another　〃science〃　than　that　of　the　arena。　We　must　follow　the　purple…robed　victor　to　Italyif；　indeed；　we　be　not　over…credulous　in　accepting　the　traditionand　learn　of　triumphs　of　a　different　kind　that　have　placed　the　name　of　Pythagoras　high　on　the　list　of　the　fathers　of　Grecian　thought。　To　Italy？　Yes；　to　the　western　limits　of　the　Greek　world。　Here　it　was；　beyond　the　confines　of　actual　Greek　territory；　that　Hellenic　thought　found　its　second　home；　its　first　home　being；　as　we　have　seen；　in　Asia　Minor。　Pythagoras；　indeed；　to　whom　we　have　just　been　introduced；　was　born　on　the　island　of　Samos；　which　lies　near　the　coast　of　Asia　Minor；　but　he　probably　migrated　at　an　early　day　to　Crotona；　in　Italy。　There　he　lived；　taught；　and　developed　his　philosophy　until　rather　late　in　life；　when；　having　incurred　the　displeasure　of　his　fellow…citizens；　he　suffered　the　not　unusual　penalty　of　banishment。　Of　the　three　other　great　Italic　leaders　of　thought　of　the　early　period；　Xenophanes　came　rather　late　in　life　to　Elea　and　founded　the　famous　Eleatic　School；　of　which　Parmenides　became　the　most　distinguished　ornament。　These　two　were　Ionians；　and　they　lived　in　the　sixth　century　before　our　era。　Empedocles；　the　Sicilian；　was　of　Doric　origin。　He　lived　about　the　middle　of　the　fifth　century　B。C。；　at　a　time；　therefore；　when　Athens　had　attained　a　position　of　chief　glory　among　the　Greek　states；　but　there　is　no　evidence　that　Empedocles　ever　visited　that　city；　though　it　was　rumored　that　he　returned　to　the　Peloponnesus　to　die。　The　other　great　Italic　philosophers　just　named；　living；　as　we　have　seen；　in　the　previous　century；　can　scarcely　have　thought　of　Athens　as　a　centre　of　Greek　thought。　Indeed；　the　very　fact　that　these　men　lived　in　Italy　made　that　peninsula；　rather　than　the　mother…land　of　Greece；　the　centre　of　Hellenic　influence。　But　all　these　men；　it　must　constantly　be　borne　in　mind；　were　Greeks　by　birth　and　language；　fully　recognized　as　such　in　their　own　time　and　by　posterity。　Yet　the　fact　that　they　lived　in　a　land　which　was　at　no　time　a　part　of　the　geographical　territory　of　Greece　must　not　be　forgotten。　They；　or　their　ancestors　of　recent　generations；　had　been　pioneers　among　those　venturesome　colonists　who　reached　out　into　distant　portions　of　the　world；　and　made　homes　for　themselves　in　much　the　same　spirit　in　which　colonists　from　Europe　began　to　populate　America　some　two　thousand　years　later。　In　general；　colonists　from　the　different　parts　of　Greece　localized　themselves　somewhat　definitely　in　their　new　homes；　yet　there　must　naturally　have　been　a　good　deal　of　commingling　among　the　various　families　of　pioneers；　and；　to　a　certain　extent；　a　mingling　also　with　the　earlier　inhabitants　of　the　country。　This　racial　mingling；　combined　with　the　well…known　vitalizing　influence　of　the　pioneer　life；　led；　we　may　suppose；　to　a　more　rapid　and　more　varied　development　than　occurred　among　the　home…staying　Greeks。　In　proof　of　this；　witness　the　remarkable　schools　of　philosophy　which；　as　we　have　seen；　were　thus　developed　at　the　confines　of　the　Greek　world；　and　which　were　presently　to　invade　and；　as　it　were；　take　by　storm　the　mother…country　itself。　As　to　the　personality　of　these　pioneer　philosophers　of　the　West；　our　knowledge　is　for　the　most　part　more　or　less　traditional。　What　has　been　said　of　Thales　may　be　repeated；　in　the　main；　regarding　Pythagoras；　Parmenides；　and　Empedocles。　That　they　were　real　persons　is　not　at　all　in　question；　but　much　that　is　merely　traditional　has　come　to　be　associated　with　their　names。　Pythagoras　was　the　senior；　and　doubtless　his　ideas　may　have　influenced　the　others　more　or　less；　though　each　is　usually　spoken　of　as　the　founder　of　an　independent　school。　Much　confusion　has　all　along　existed；　however；　as　to　the　precise　ideas　which　were　to　be　ascribed　to　each　of　the　leaders。　Numberless　commentators；　indeed；　have　endeavored　to　pick　out　from　among　the　traditions　of　antiquity；　aided　by　such　fragments；　of　the　writing　of　the　philosoph