a history of science-1-第14节

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h　were　doubtless　superstitious　in　their　motive；　had　given　the　Babylonians　some　inklings　of　a　knowledge　of　classification。　Thus；　according　to　Menant；＇21＇　some　of　the　tablets　from　Nineveh；　which　are　written；　as　usual；　in　both　the　Sumerian　and　Assyrian　languages；　and　which；　therefore；　like　practically　all　Assyrian　books；　draw　upon　the　knowledge　of　old　Babylonia；　give　lists　of　animals；　making　an　attempt　at　classification。　The　dog；　lion；　and　wolf　are　placed　in　one　category；　the　ox；　sheep；　and　goat　in　another；　the　dog　family　itself　is　divided　into　various　races；　as　the　domestic　dog；　the　coursing　dog；　the　small　dog；　the　dog　of　Elan；　etc。　Similar　attempts　at　classification　of　birds　are　found。　Thus；　birds　of　rapid　flight；　sea…birds；　and　marsh…birds　are　differentiated。　Insects　are　classified　according　to　habit；　those　that　attack　plants；　animals；　clothing；　or　wood。　Vegetables　seem　to　be　classified　according　to　their　usefulness。　One　tablet　enumerates　the　uses　of　wood　according　to　its　adaptability　for　timber…work　of　palaces；　or　construction　of　vessels；　the　making　of　implements　of　husbandry；　or　even　furniture。　Minerals　occupy　a　long　series　in　these　tablets。　They　are　classed　according　to　their　qualities；　gold　and　silver　occupying　a　division　apart；　precious　stones　forming　another　series。　Our　Babylonians；　then；　must　be　credited　with　the　development　of　a　rudimentary　science　of　natural　history。

BABYLONIAN　MEDICINE　We　have　just　seen　that　medical　practice　in　the　Babylonian　world　was　strangely　under　the　cloud　of　superstition。　But　it　should　be　understood　that　our　estimate；　through　lack　of　correct　data；　probably　does　much　less　than　justice　to　the　attainments　of　the　physician　of　the　time。　As　already　noted；　the　existing　tablets　chance　not　to　throw　much　light　on　the　subject。　It　is　known；　however；　that　the　practitioner　of　medicine　occupied　a　position　of　some；　authority　and　responsibility。　The　proof　of　this　is　found　in　the　clauses　relating　to　the　legal　status　of　the　physician　which　are　contained　in　the　now　famous　code＇22＇　of　the　Babylonian　King　Khamurabi；　who　reigned　about　2300　years　before　our　era。　These　clauses；　though　throwing　no　light　on　the　scientific　attainments　of　the　physician　of　the　period；　are　too　curious　to　be　omitted。　They　are　clauses　215　to　227　of　the　celebrated　code；　and　are　as　follows：　215。　If　a　doctor　has　treated　a　man　for　a　severe　wound　with　a　lancet　of　bronze　and　has　cured　the　man；　or　has　opened　a　tumor　with　a　bronze　lancet　and　has　cured　the　man's　eye；　he　shall　receive　ten　shekels　of　silver。　216。　If　it　was　a　freedman；　he　shall　receive　five　shekels　of　silver。　217。　If　it　was　a　man's　slave；　the　owner　of　the　slave　shall　give　the　doctor　two　shekels　of　silver。　218。　If　a　physician　has　treated　a　free…born　man　for　a　severe　wound　with　a　lancet　of　bronze　and　has　caused　the　man　to　die；　or　has　opened　a　tumor　of　the　man　with　a　lancet　of　bronze　and　has　destroyed　his　eye；　his　hands　one　shall　cut　off。　219。　If　the　doctor　has　treated　the　slave　of　a　freedman　for　a　severe　wound　with　a　bronze　lancet　and　has　caused　him　to　die；　he　shall　give　back　slave　for　slave。　220。　If　he　has　opened　his　tumor　with　a　bronze　lancet　and　has　ruined　his　eye；　he　shall　pay　the　half　of　his　price　in　money。　221。　If　a　doctor　has　cured　the　broken　limb　of　a　man；　or　has　healed　his　sick　body；　the　patient　shall　pay　the　doctor　five　shekels　of　silver。　222。　If　it　was　a　freedman；　he　shall　give　three　shekels　of　silver。　223。　If　it　was　a　man's　slave；　the　owner　of　the　slave　shall　give　two　shekels　of　silver　to　the　doctor。　224。　If　the　doctor　of　oxen　and　asses　has　treated　an　ox　or　an　ass　for　a　grave　wound　and　has　cured　it；　the　owner　of　the　ox　or　the　ass　shall　give　to　the　doctor　as　his　pay　one…sixth　of　a　shekel　of　silver。　225。　If　he　has　treated　an　ox　or　an　ass　for　a　severe　wound　and　has　caused　its　death；　he　shall　pay　one…fourth　of　its　price　to　the　owner　of　the　ox　or　the　ass。　226。　If　a　barber…surgeon；　without　consent　of　the　owner　of　a　slave；　has　branded　the　slave　with　an　indelible　mark；　one　shall　cut　off　the　hands　of　that　barber。　227。　If　any　one　deceive　the　surgeon…barber　and　make　him　brand　a　slave　with　an　indelible　mark；　one　shall　kill　that　man　and　bury　him　in　his　house。　The　barber　shall　swear；　〃I　did　not　mark　him　wittingly；〃　and　he　shall　be　guiltless。

ESTIMATES　OF　BABYLONIAN　SCIENCE　Before　turning　from　the　Oriental　world　it　is　perhaps　worth　while　to　attempt　to　estimate　somewhat　specifically　the　world…influence　of　the　name；　Babylonian　science。　Perhaps　we　cannot　better　gain　an　idea　as　to　the　estimate　put　upon　that　science　by　the　classical　world　than　through　a　somewhat　extended　quotation　from　a　classical　author。　Diodorus　Siculus；　who；　as　already　noted；　lived　at　about　the　time　of　Augustus；　and　who；　therefore；　scanned　in　perspective　the　entire　sweep　of　classical　Greek　history；　has　left　us　a　striking　summary　which　is　doubly　valuable　because　of　its　comparisons　of　Babylonian　with　Greek　influence。　Having　viewed　the　science　of　Babylonia　in　the　light　of　the　interpretations　made　possible　by　the　recent　study　of　original　documents；　we　are　prepared　to　draw　our　own　conclusions　from　the　statements　of　the　Greek　historian。　Here　is　his　estimate　in　the　words　of　the　quaint　translation　made　by　Philemon　Holland　in　the　year　1700：＇23＇

〃They　being　the　most　ancient　Babylonians；　hold　the　same　station　and　dignity　in　the　Common…wealth　as　the　Egyptian　Priests　do　in　Egypt：　For　being　deputed　to　Divine　Offices；　they　spend　all　their　Time　in　the　study　of　Philosophy；　and　are　especially　famous　for　the　Art　of　Astrology。　They　are　mightily　given　to　Divination；　and　foretel　future　Events；　and　imploy　themselves　either　by　Purifications；　Sacrifices；　or　other　Inchantments　to　avert　Evils；　or　procure　good　Fortune　and　Success。　They　are　skilful　likewise　in　the　Art　of　Divination；　by　the　flying　of　Birds；　and　interpreting　of　Dreams　and　Prodigies：　And　are　reputed　as　true　Oracles　（in　declaring　what　will　come　to　pass）　by　their　exact　and　diligent　viewing　the　Intrals　of　the　Sacrifices。　But　they　attain　not　to　this　Knowledge　in　the　same　manner　as　the　Grecians　do；　for　the　Chaldeans　learn　it　by　Tradition　from　their　Ancestors；　the　Son　from　the　Father；　who　are　all　in　the　mean　time　free　from　all　other　publick　Offices　and　Attendances；　and　because　their　Parents　are　their　Tutors；　they　both　learn　every　thing　without　Envy；　and　rely　with　more　confidence　upon　the　truth　of　what　is　taught　them；　and　being　train'd　up　in　this　Learning；　from　their　very　Childhood；　they　become　most　famous　Philosophers；　（that　Age　being　most　capable　of　Learning；　wherein　they　spend　much　of　their　time）。　But　the　Grecians　for　the　most　part　come　raw　to　this　study；　unfitted　and　unprepar'd；　and　are　long　before　they　attain　to　the　Knowledge　of　this　Philosophy：　And　after　they　have　spent　some　small　time　in　this　Study；　they　are　many　times　call'd　off　and　forc'd　to　leave　it；　in　order　to　get　a　Livelihood　and　Subsistence。　And　although　some；　few　do　industriously　apply　themselves　to　Philosophy；　yet　for　the　sake　of　Gain；　these　very　Men　are　opinionative；　and　ever　and　anon　starting　new　and　high　Points；　and　never　fix　in　the　steps　of　their　Ancestors。　But　the　Barbarians　keeping　constantly　close　to　the　same　thing；　attain　to　a　perfect　and　distinct　Knowledge　in　every　particular。　〃But　the　Grecians；　cunningly　catching　at　all　Opportunities　of　Gain；　make　new　Sects　and　Parties；　and　by　their　contrary　Opinions　wrangling　and　quarelling　concerning　the　chiefest　Points；　lead　their　Scholars　into　a　Maze；　and　being　uncertain　and　doubtful　what　to　pitch　upon　for　certain　truth；　their　Minds　are　fluctuating　and　in　suspence　all　the　days　of　their　Lives；　and　unable　to　give　a　certain　assent　unto　any　thing。　For　if　any　Man　will　but　examine　the　most　eminent　Sects　of　the　Philosophers；　he　shall　find　them　much　differing　among　themselves；　and　even　opposing　one　another　in　the　most　weighty　parts　of　their　Philosophy。　But　to　return　to　the　Chaldeans；　they　hold　that　the　World　is　eternal；　which　had　neither　any　certain　Beginning；　nor　shall　have　any　End；　but　all　agree；　that　all　things　are　order'd；　and　this　beautiful　Fabrick　is　supported　by　a　Divine　Providence；　and　that　the　Motions　of　the　Heavens　are　not　perform'd　by　chance　and　of　their　own　accord；　but　by　a　certain　and　determinate　Will　and　Appointment　of　the　Gods。　〃Therefore　from　a　long　observation　of　the　Stars；　and　an　exact　Knowledge　of　the　motions　and　influences　of　every　one　of　them；　wherein　they　excel　all　others；　they　fortel　many　things　that　are　to　come　to　pass。　〃They　say　that　the　Five　Stars　which　some　call　Planets；　but　they　Interpreters；　are　most　worthy　of　Consideration；　both　for　their　motions　and　their　remarkable　influences；　especially　that　which　the　Grecians　call　Saturn。　The　brightest　of　them　all；　and　which　often　portends　many　and　great　Events；　they　call　Sol；　the　other　Four　they　name　Mars；　Venus；　Mercury；　and　Jupiter；　with　our　own　Country　Astrologers。　They　give　the　Name　of　Interpreters　to　these　Stars；　because　these　only　by　a　peculiar　Motion　do　portend　things　to　come；　and　instead　of　Jupiters；　do　declare　to　Men　before…hand　the　good…　will　of　the　Gods；　whereas　the　other　Stars　（not　being　of　the　number　of　the　Planets）　have　a　constant　ordinary　motion。　Future　Events　（they　say）　are　pointed　at　sometimes　by　their　Rising；　and　sometimes　by　their　Setting；　and　at　other　times　by　their　Colour；　as　may　be　experienc'd　by　those　that　w