the origin of the distinction of ranks-第34节

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　subsisted　between　different　families；　the　people；　who　have　no　other　military　enterprises　but　those　which　are　carried　on　in　the　public　cause　of　the　nation；　become　gradually　less　accustomed　to　fighting；　and　their　martial　ardour　is　proportionably　abated。　　　　　The　improvement　of　arts　and　manufactures；　by　introducing　luxury；　contributes　yet　more　to　enervate　the　minds　of　men；　who；　according　as　they　enjoy　more　ease　and　pleasure　at　home；　feel　greater　aversion　to　the　hardships　and　dangers　of　a　military　life；　and　put　a　lower　value　upon　that　sort　of　reputation　which　it　affords。　The　increase　of　industry；　at　the　same　time；　creates　a　number　of　lucrative　employments　which　require　a　constant　attention；　and　gives　rise　to　a　variety　of　tradesmen　and　artificers；　who　cannot　afford　to　leave　their　business　for　the　transient　and　uncertain　advantages　to　be　derived　from　the　pillage　of　their　enemies。　　　　　In　these　circumstances　the　bulk　of　a　people　become　at　length　unable　or　unwilling　to　serve　in　war；　and　when　summoned　to　appear　in　the　field；　according　to　the　ancient　usage；　are　induced　to　offer　a　sum　of　money　instead　of　their　personal　attendance。　A　composition　of　this　kind　is　readily　accepted　by　the　sovereign　or　chief　magistrate；　as　it　enables　him　to　hire　soldiers　among　those　who　have　no　better　employment；　or　who　have　contracted　a　liking　to　that　particular　occupation。　The　forces　which　he　has　raised　in　this　manner　receiving　constant　pay；　and　having　no　other　means　of　procuring　a　livelihood；　are　entirely　under　the　direction　of　their　leader；　and　are　willing　to　remain　in　his　serVice　as　long　as　he　chooses　to　retain　them。　From　this　alteration　of　circumstances；　he　has　an　opportunity　of　establishing　a　proper　subordination　in　the　army；　and　according　as　it　becomes　fitter　for　action；　and；　in　all　its　motions；　capable　of　being　guided　and　regulated　with　greater　facility；　he　is　encouraged　to　enter　upon　more　difficult　enterprises；　as　well　as　to　meditate　more　distant　schemes　of　ambition。　His　wars；　which　were　formerly　concluded　in　a　few　weeks；　are　now　gradually　protracted　to　a　greater　length　of　time；　and　occasioning　a　greater　variety　of　operations；　are　productive　of　suitable　improvements　in　the　military　art。　　　　　After　a　numerous　body　of　troops　have　been　levied　at　considerable　expense；　and　have　been　prepared　for　war　by　a　long　course　of　discipline　and　experience；　it　appears　highly　expedient　to　the　sovereign　that；　even　in　time　of　peace；　some　part　of　them；　at　least；　should　be　kept　in　pay；　to　be　in　readiness　whenever　their　service　is　required。　Thus；　the　introduction　of　mercenary　forces　is　soon　followed　by　that　of　a　regular　standing　army。　The　business　of　a　soldier　becomes　a　distinct　profession；　which　is　appropriated　to　a　separate　order　of　men；　while　the　rest　of　the　inhabitants；　being　devoted　to　their　several　employments；　become　wholly　unaccustomed　to　arms；　and　the　preservation　of　their　lives　and　fortunes；　is　totally　devolved　upon　those　whom　they　are　at　the　charge　of　maintaining　for　that　purpose。　　　　　This　important　revolution；　with　respect　to　the　means　of　national　defence；　appears　to　have　taken　place　in　all　the　civilized　and　opulent　nations　of　antiquity。　In　all　the　Greek　states；　even　in　that　of　Sparta；　we　find　that　the　military　service　of　the　free　citizens　came；　from　a　change　of　manners；　to　be　regarded　as　burdensome；　and　the　practice　of　employing　mercenary　troops　was　introduced。　The　Romans　too；　before　the　end　of　the　republic；　had　found　it　necessary　to　maintain　a　regular　standing　army　in　each　of　their　distant　provinces。　　　　　In　the　modern　nations　of　Europe；　the　disuse　of　the　feudal　militia　was　an　immediate　consequence　of　the　progress　of　the　people　in　arts　and　manufactures；　after　which　the　different　sovereigns　were　forced　to　hire　soldiers　upon　particular　occasions；　and　at　last　to　maintain　a　regular　body　of　troops　for　the　defence　of　their　dominions。　In　France；　during　the　reign　of　Lewis　XIII；　and　in　Germany；　about　the　same　period；　the　military　system　began　to　be　established　upon　that　footing；　which　it　has　since　acquired　in　all　the　countries　of　Europe。　　　　　The　tendency　of　a　standing　mercenary　army　to　increase　the　power　and　prerogative　of　the　crown；　which　has　been　the　subject　of　much　declamation；　is　sufficiently　obvious。　As　the　army　is　immediately　under　the　conduct　of　the　monarch；　as　the　individuals　of　which　it　is　composed　depend　entirely　upon　him　for　preferment；　as；　by　forming　a　separate　order　of　men　they　are　apt　to　become　indifferent　about　the　rights　of　their　fellow…citizens；　it　may　be　expected　that；　in　most　cases；　they　will　be　disposed　to　pay　an　implicit　obedience　to　his　commands；　and　that　the　same　force　which　is　maintained　to　suppress　insurrections；　and　to　repel　invasions；　may　often　be　employed　to　subvert　and　destroy　the　liberties　of　the　people。　　　　　The　same　improvements　in　society；　which　give　rise　to　the　maintenance　of　standing　forces；　are　usually　attended　with　similar　changes　in　the　manner　of　distributing　justice。　It　has　been　already　observed　that；　in　a　large　community；　which　has　made　but　little　progress　in　the　arts；　every　chief　or　baron　is　the　judge　over　his　own　tribe；　and　the　king；　with　the　assistance　of　his　great　council；　exercises　a　jurisdiction　over　the　members　of　different　tribes　or　baronies。　From　the　small　number　of　law…suits　which　occur　in　the　ages　of　poverty　and　rudeness；　and　from　the　rapidity　with　which　they　are　usually　determined　among　a　warlike　and　ignorant　people；　the　office　of　a　judge　demands　little　attention；　and　occasions　no　great　interruption　to　those　pursuits　in　which　a　man　of　rank　and　distinction　is　commonly　engaged。　The　sovereign　and　the　nobility；　therefore；　in　such　a　situation；　may　continue　to　hold　this　office；　though；　in　their　several　courts；　they　should　appoint　a　deputy…judge　to　assist　them　in　discharging　the　duties　of　it。　But　when　the　increase　of　opulence　has　given　encouragement　to　a　variety　of　tedious　litigation；　they　become　unwilling　to　bestow　the　necessary　time　in　hearing　causes；　and　are　therefore　induced　to　devolve　the　whole　business　upon　inferior　judges；　who　acquire　by　degrees　the　several　branches　of　the　judicial　power；　and　are　obliged　to　hold　regular　courts　for　the　benefit　of　the　inhabitants。　Thus　the　exercise　of　jurisdiction　becomes　a　separate　employment；　and　is　committed　to　an　order　of　men；　who　require　a　particular　education　to　qualify　them　for　the　duties　of　their　office；　and　who；　in　return　for　their　serVice；　must　therefore　be　enabled　to　earn　a　livelihood　by　their　profession。　　　　　A　provision　for　the　maintenance　of　judges　is　apt；　from　the　natural　course　of　things；　to　grow　out　of　their　employment；　as；　in　order　to　procure　an　indemnification　for　their　attendance；　they　have　an　opportunity　of　exacting　fees　from　the　parties　who　come　before　them。　This　is　analagous　to　what　happens　with　respect　to　every　sort　of　manufacture；　in　which　an　artificer　is　commonly　paid　by　those　who　employ　him。　We　find；　accordingly；　that　this　was　the　early　practice　in　all　the　feudal　courts　of　Europe；　and　that　the　perquisites　drawn　by　the　judges；　in　different　tribunals；　yielded　a　considerable　revenue　both　to　the　king　and　the　nobles。　It　is　likely　that　similar　customs；　in　this　respect；　have　been　adopted　in　most　parts　of　the　world；　by　nations　in　the　same　period　of　their　advancement。　The　impropriety；　however；　of　giving　a　permission　to　these　exactions；　which　tend　to　influence　the　decisions　of　a　judge；　to　render　him　active　in　stirring　up　law…suits；　and　in　multiplying　the　form　of　his　procedure；　in　order　to　increase　his　perquisites；　these　pernicious　consequences　with　which　it　is　inseparably　connected；　could　not　fail　to　attract　the　notice　of　a　polished　people；　and　at　length　produced　the　more　perfect　plan　of　providing　for　the　maintenance　of　judges　by　the　appointment　of　a　fixed　salary　in　place　of　their　former　precarious　emoluments。　　　　　It　cannot　be　doubted　that　these　establishments；　of　such　mighty　importance；　and　of　so　extensive　a　nature；　must　be　the　source　of　great　expense　to　the　public。　In　those　early　periods；　when　the　inhabitants　of　a　country　are　in　a　condition　to　defend　themselves；　and　when　their　internal　disputes　are　decided　by　judges　who　claim　no　reward　for　their　interpositions；　or　at　least　no　reward　from　government；　few　regulations　are　necessary　with　respect　to　the　public　revenue。　The　king　is　enabled　to　maintain　his　family；　and　to　support　his　dignity；　by　the　rents　of　his　own　estate；　and；　in　ordinary　cases；　he　has　no　farther　demand。　But　when　the　disuse　of　the　ancient　militia　has　been　succeeded　by　the　practice　of　hiring　troops；　these　original　funds　are　no　longer　sufficient；　and　other　resources　must　be　provided　in　order　to　supply　the　deficiency。　By　the　happy　disposition　of　human　events；　the　very　circumstance　that　occasions　this　difficulty　appears　also　to　suggest　the　means　of　removing　it。　When　the　bulk　of　a　people　become　unwilling　to　serve　in　war；　they　are　naturally　disposed　to　offer　a　composition　in　order　to　be　excused　from　that　ancient　personal　service　which；　from　long　custom；　it　is　thought　they　are　bound　to　perform。　Compositions　of　this　nature　are　levied　at　first；　in　consequence　of　an　agreement　with　each　individual：　to　avoid　the　trouble　arising　from　a　multiplicity　of　separate　transactions；　they　are　afterwards　paid　in　common　by　the　inhabitants　of　particular　districts；　and　at　length　give　rise　to　a　gener