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life；　when　they　found　the　means　of　making　them　strictly　observed；　China　was　well　governed。

Two　things　have　contributed　to　the　ease　with　which　these　rites　are　engraved　on　the　hearts　and　minds　of　the　Chinese；　one；　the　difficulty　of　writing；　which　during　the　greatest　part　of　their　lives　wholly　employs　their　attention；＇19＇　because　it　is　necessary　to　prepare　them　to　read　and　understand　the　books　in　which　they　are　comprised；　the　other；　that　the　ritual　precepts　having　nothing　in　them　that　is　spiritual；　but　being　merely　rules　of　common　practice；　are　more　adapted　to　convince　and　strike　the　mind　than　things　merely　intellectual。

Those　princes　who；　instead　of　ruling　by　these　rites；　governed　by　the　force　of　punishments；　wanted　to　accomplish　that　by　punishments　which　it　is　not　in　their　power　to　produce；　that　is；　to　give　habits　of　morality。　By　punishments；　a　subject　is　very　justly　cut　off　from　society；　who；　having　lost　the　purity　of　his　manners；　violates　the　laws；　but　if　all　the　world　were　to　lose　their　moral　habits；　would　these　reestablish　them？　Punishments　may　be　justly　inflicted　to　put　a　stop　to　many　of　the　consequences　of　the　general　evil；　but　they　will　not　remove　the　evil　itself。　Thus　when　the　principles　of　the　Chinese　government　were　discarded；　and　morality　was　banished；　the　state　fell　into　anarchy；　and　revolutions　succeeded。

18。　A　Consequence　drawn　from　the　preceding　Chapter。　Hence　it　follows　that　the　laws　of　China　are　not　destroyed　by　conquest。　Their　customs；　manners；　laws；　and　religion　being　the　same　thing；　they　cannot　change　all　these　at　once；　and　as　it　will　happen　that　either　the　conqueror　or　the　conquered　must　change；　in　China　it　has　always　been　the　conqueror。　For　the　manners　of　the　conquering　nation　not　being　their　customs；　nor　their　customs　their　laws；　nor　their　laws　their　religion；　it　has　been　more　easy　for　them　to　conform　by　degrees　to　the　vanquished　people　than　the　latter　to　them。

There　still　follows　hence　a　very　unhappy　consequence；　which　is　that　it　is　almost　impossible　for　Christianity　ever　to　be　established　in　China。＇20＇　The　vows　of　virginity；　the　assembling　of　women　in　churches；　their　necessary　communication　with　the　ministers　of　religion；　their　participation　in　the　sacraments；　auricular　confession；　extreme　unction；　the　marriage　of　only　one　wife　　all　these　overturn　the　manners　and　customs　of　the　country；　and　with　the　same　blow　strike　at　their　religion　and　laws。

The　Christian　religion；　by　the　establishment　of　charity；　by　a　public　worship；　by　a　participation　of　the　same　sacraments；　seems　to　demand　that　all　should　be　united；　while　the　rites　of　China　seem　to　ordain　that　all　should　be　separated。

And　as　we　have　seen　that　this　separation＇21＇　depends；　in　general；　on　the　spirit　of　despotism；　this　will　show　us　the　reason　why　monarchies；　and　indeed　all　moderate　governments；　are　more　consistent　with　the　Christian　religion。＇22＇

19。　How　this　Union　of　Religion；　Laws；　Manners；　and　Customs　among　the　Chinese　was　effected。　The　principal　object　of　government　which　the　Chinese　legislators　had　in　view　was　the　peace　and　tranquillity　of　the　empire；　and　subordination　appeared　to　them　as　the　most　proper　means　to　maintain　it。　Filled　with　this　idea；　they　believed　it　their　duty　to　inspire　a　respect　for　parents；　and　therefore　exerted　all　their　power　to　effect　it。　They　established　an　infinite　number　of　rites　and　ceremonies　to　do　them　honour　when　living；　and　after　their　death。　It　was　impossible　for　them　to　pay　such　honours　to　deceased　parents　without　being　led　to　reverence　the　living。　The　ceremonies　at　the　death　of　a　father　were　more　nearly　related　to　religion；　those　for　a　living　parent　had　a　greater　relation　to　the　laws；　manners；　and　customs：　however；　these　were　only　parts　of　the　same　code；　but　this　code　was　very　extensive。

A　veneration　for　their　parents　was　necessarily　connected　with　a　suitable　respect　for　all　who　represented　them；　such　as　old　men；　masters；　magistrates；　and　the　sovereign。　This　respect　for　parents　supposed　a　return　of　love　towards　children；　and　consequently　the　same　return　from　old　men　to　the　young；　from　magistrates　to　those　who　were　under　their　jurisdiction；　and　from　the　emperor　to　his　subjects。　This　formed　the　rites；　and　these　rites　the　general　spirit　of　the　nation。

We　shall　now　show　the　relation　which　things　in　appearance　the　most　indifferent　may　bear　to　the　fundamental　constitution　of　China。　This　empire　is　formed　on　the　plan　of　a　government　of　a　family。　If　you　diminish　the　paternal　authority；　or　even　if　you　retrench　the　ceremonies　which　express　your　respect　for　it；　you　weaken　the　reverence　due　to　magistrates；　who　are　considered　as　fathers；　nor　would　the　magistrates　have　the　same　care　of　the　people；　whom　they　ought　to　look　upon　as　their　children；　and　that　tender　relation　which　subsists　between　the　prince　and　his　subjects　would　insensibly　be　lost。　Retrench　but　one　of　these　habits　and　you　overturn　the　state。　It　is　a　thing　in　itself　very　indifferent　whether　the　daughter…in…law　rises　every　morning　to　pay　such　and　such　duties　to　her　mother…in…law；　but　if　we　consider　that　these　exterior　habits　incessantly　revive　an　idea　necessary　to　be　imprinted　on　all　minds　　an　idea　that　forms　the　ruling　spirit　of　the　empire　　we　shall　see　that　it　is　necessary　that　such　or　such　a　particular　action　be　performed。

20。　Explanation　of　a　Paradox　relating　to　the　Chinese。　It　is　very　remarkable　that　the　Chinese；　whose　lives　are　guided　by　rites；　are　nevertheless　the　greatest　cheats　upon　earth。　This　appears　chiefly　in　their　trade；　which；　in　spite　of　its　natural　tendency；　has　never　been　able　to　make　them　honest。　He　who　buys　of　them　ought　to　carry　with　him　his　own　weights；＇23＇　every　merchant　having　three　sorts；　the　one　heavy　for　buying；　another　light　for　selling；　and　another　of　the　true　standard　for　those　who　are　upon　their　guard。　It　is　possible；　I　believe；　to　explain　this　contradiction。

The　legislators　of　China　had　two　objects　in　view：　they　were　desirous　that　the　people　should　be　submissive　and　peaceful；　and　that　they　should　also　be　laborious　and　industrious。　By　the　nature　of　the　soil　and　climate；　their　subsistence　is　very　precarious；　nor　can　it　be　in　any　other　way　secured　than　by　industry　and　labour。

When　every　one　obeys；　and　every　one　is　employed；　the　state　is　in　a　happy　situation。　It　is　necessity；　and　perhaps　the　nature　of　the　climate；　that　has　given　to　the　Chinese　an　inconceivable　greediness　for　gain；　and　laws　have　never　been　made　to　restrain　it。　Everything　has　been　forbidden　when　acquired　by　acts　of　violence；　everything　permitted　when　obtained　by　artifice　or　labour。　Let　us　not　then　compare　the　morals　of　China　with　those　of　Europe。　Every　one　in　China　is　obliged　to　be　attentive　to　what　will　be　for　his　advantage；　if　the　cheat　has　been　watchful　over　his　own　interest；　he　who　is　the　dupe　ought　to　be　attentive　to　his。　At　Sparta　they　were　permitted　to　steal；　in　China　they　are　suffered　to　deceive。

21。　How　the　Laws　ought　to　have　a　Relation　to　Manners　and　Customs。　It　is　only　singular　institutions　which　thus　confound　laws；　manners；　and　customs　　things　naturally　distinct　and　separate；　but　though　they　are　in　themselves　different；　there　is　nevertheless　a　great　relation　between　them。

Solon　being　asked　if　the　laws　he　had　given　to　the　Athenians　were　the　best；　he　replied；　〃I　have　given　them　the　best　they　were　able　to　bear〃＇24＇　　a　fine　expression；　that　ought　to　be　perfectly　understood　by　all　legislators！　When　Divine　Wisdom　said　to　the　Jews；　〃I　have　given　you　precepts　which　are　not　good；〃　this　signified　that　they　had　only　a　relative　goodness；　which　is　the　sponge　that　wipes　out　all　the　difficulties　in　the　law　of　Moses。

22。　The　same　Subject　continued。　When　a　people　have　pure　and　regular　manners；　their　laws　become　simple　and　natural。　Plato＇25＇　says　that　Rhadamanthus；　who　governed　a　nation　extremely　religious；　finished　every　process　with　extraordinary　despatch；　administering　only　the　oath　on　each　accusation。　〃But；〃　says　the　same　Plato；＇26＇　〃when　a　people　are　not　religious　we　should　never　have　recourse　to　an　oath；　except　he　who　swears　is　entirely　disinterested；　as　in　the　case　of　a　judge　and　a　witness。〃

23。　How　the　Laws　are　founded　on　the　Manners　of　a　People。　At　the　time　when　the　manners　of　the　Romans　were　pure；　they　had　no　particular　law　against　the　embezzlement　of　the　public　money。　When　this　crime　began　to　appear；　it　was　thought　so　infamous；　that　to　be　condemned　to　restore＇27＇　what　they　had　taken　was　considered　as　a　sufficient　disgrace：　for　a　proof　of　this；　see　the　sentence　of　L。　Scipio。＇28＇

24。　The　same　Subject　continued。　The　laws　which　gave　the　right　of　tutelage　to　the　mother　were　most　attentive　to　the　preservation　of　the　infant's　person；　those　which　granted　it　to　the　next　heir　were　most　attentive　to　the　preservation　of　the　state。　When　the　manners　of　a　people　are　corrupted；　it　is　much　better　to　give　the　tutelage　to　the　mother。　Among　those　whose　laws　confide　in　the　manners　of　the　subjects；　the　guardianship　is　granted　either　to　the　next　heir　or　to　the　mother；　and　sometimes　to　both。

If　we　reflect　on　the　Roman　laws；　we　shall　find　that　the　spirit　of　these　was　conformable　to　what　I　have　advanced。　At　the　time　when　the　laws　of　the　Twelve　Tables　were　made；　the　manners　of　the　Romans　were　most　admirable。　The　guardianship　was　given　to　the　nearest　relativ