the spirit of laws-第143节

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e　had　attained　the　age　of　puberty；　or　only　whipped　if　he　was　not　of　ripe　age；　but　as　for　the　nonmanifest　thief；　he　was　only　condemned　to　a　fine　of　double　the　value　of　what　he　had　stolen。

When　the　Porcian　laws　abolished　the　custom　of　whipping　the　citizens　with　rods；　and　of　reducing　them　to　slavery；　the　manifest　thief　was　condemned　to　a　payment　of　fourfold；　and　they　still　continued　to　condemn　the　non…manifest　thief　to　a　payment　of　double。＇20＇

It　seems　very　odd　that　these　laws　should　make　such　a　difference　in　the　quality　of　those　two　crimes；　and　in　the　punishments　they　inflicted。　And；　indeed；　whether　the　thief　was　detected　either　before　or　after　he　had　carried　the　stolen　goods　to　the　place　intended；　this　was　a　circumstance　which　did　not　alter　the　nature　of　the　crime。　I　do　not　at　all　question　that　the　whole　theory　of　the　Roman　laws　in　relation　to　theft　was　borrowed　from　the　Laced？monian　institutions。　Lycurgus；　with　a　view　of　rendering　the　citizens　dextrous　and　cunning；　ordained　that　children　should　be　practised　in　thieving；　and　that　those　who　were　caught　in　the　act　should　be　severely　whipped。　This　occasioned　among　the　Greeks；　and　afterwards　among　the　Romans；　a　great　difference　between　a　manifest　and　a　non…manifest　theft。＇21＇

Among　the　Romans；　a　slave　who　had　been　guilty　of　stealing　was　thrown　from　the　Tarpeian　rock。　Here　the　Laced？monian　institutions　were　out　of　the　question；　the　laws　of　Lycurgus　in　relation　to　theft　were　not　made　for　slaves；　to　deviate　from　them　in　this　respect　was　in　reality　conforming　to　them。

At　Rome；　when　a　person　of　unripe　age　happened　to　be　caught　in　the　act；　the　pr？tor　ordered　him　to　be　whipped　with　rods　according　to　his　pleasure；　as　was　practised　at　Sparta。　All　this　had　a　more　remote　origin。　The　Laced？monians　had　derived　these　usages　from　the　Cretans；　and　Plato；＇22＇　who　wants　to　prove　that　the　Cretan　institutions　were　designed　for　war；　cites　the　following；　namely；　the　power　of　bearing　pain　in　individual　combats；　and　in　thefts　which　have　to　be　concealed。

As　the　civil　laws　depend　on　the　political　institutions；　because　they　are　made　for　the　same　society；　whenever　there　is　a　design　of　adopting　the　civil　law　of　another　nation；　it　would　be　proper　to　examine　beforehand　whether　they　have　both　the　same　institutions　and　the　same　political　law。

Thus　when　the　Cretan　laws　on　theft　were　adopted　by　the　Laced？monians；　as　their　constitution　and　government　were　adopted　at　the　same　time；　these　laws　were　equally　reasonable　in　both　nations。　But　when　they　were　carried　from　Laced？mon　to　Rome；　as　they　did　not　find　there　the　same　constitution；　they　were　always　thought　strange；　and　had　no　manner　of　connection　with　the　other　civil　laws　of　the　Romans。

14。　That　we　must　not　separate　the　Laws　from　the　Circumstances　in　which　they　were　made。　It　was　decreed　by　a　law　at　Athens　that　when　the　city　was　besieged；　all　the　useless　people　should　be　put　to　death。＇23＇　This　was　an　abominable　political　law；　in　consequence　of　an　abominable　law　of　nations。　Among　the　Greeks；　the　inhabitants　of　a　town　taken　lost　their　civil　liberty　and　were　sold　as　slaves。　The　taking　of　a　town　implied　its　entire　destruction；　which　is　the　source　not　only　of　those　obstinate　defences；　and　of　those　unnatural　actions；　but　likewise　of　those　shocking　laws　which　they　sometimes　enacted。

The　Roman　laws　ordained　that　physicians　should　be　punished　for　neglect　or　unskilfulness。＇24＇　In　those　cases；　if　the　physician　was　a　person　of　any　fortune　or　rank；　he　was　only　condemned　to　deportation；　but　if　he　was　of　a　low　condition　he　was　put　to　death。　By　our　institutions　it　is　otherwise。　The　Roman　laws　were　not　made　under　the　same　circumstances　as　ours：　at　Rome　every　ignorant　pretender　intermeddled　with　physic；　but　among　us；　physicians　are　obliged　to　go　through　a　regular　course　of　study；　and　to　take　their　degrees；　for　which　reason　they　are　supposed　to　understand　their　profession。

15。　That　sometimes　it　is　proper　the　Law　should　amend　itself。　The　law　of　the　Twelve　Tables　allowed　people　to　kill　a　night…thief　as　well　as　a　day…thief；＇25＇　if　upon　being　pursued　he　attempted　to　make　a　defence；　but　it　required　that　the　person　who　killed　the　thief　should　cry　out　and　call　his　fellow…citizens。　This　is　indeed　what　those　laws；　which　permit　people　to　do　justice　to　themselves；　ought　always　to　require。　It　is　the　cry　of　innocence　which　in　the　very　moment　of　the　action　calls　in　witnesses　and　appeals　to　judges。　The　people　ought　to　take　cognizance　of　the　action；　and　at　the　very　instant　of　its　being　done；　an　instant　when　everything　speaks；　even　air；　countenance；　passions；　silence；　and　when　every　word　either　condemns　or　absolves。　A　law　which　may　become　so　opposed　to　the　security　and　liberty　of　the　citizens　ought　to　be　executed　in　their　presence。＇26＇

16。　Things　to　be　observed　in　the　composing　of　Laws。　They　who　have　a　genius　sufficient　to　enable　them　to　give　laws　to　their　own；　or　to　another　nation；　ought　to　be　particularly　attentive　to　the　manner　of　forming　them。

The　style　ought　to　be　concise。　The　laws　of　the　Twelve　Tables　are　a　model　of　conciseness；　the　very　children　used　to　learn　them　by　heart。＇27＇　Justinian's　Novell？　were　so　very　diffuse　that　they　were　obliged　to　abridge　them。＇28＇

The　style　should　also　be　plain　and　simple；　a　direct　expression　being　better　understood　than　an　indirect　one。　There　is　no　majesty　at　all　in　the　laws　of　the　lower　empire；　princes　are　made　to　speak　like　rhetoricians。　When　the　style　of　laws　is　inflated；　they　are　looked　upon　only　as　a　work　of　parade　and　ostentation。

It　is　an　essential　article　that　the　words　of　the　laws　should　excite　in　everybody　the　same　ideas。　Cardinal　Richelieu＇29＇　agreed　that　a　minister　might　be　accused　before　the　king；　but　he　would　have　the　accuser　punished　if　the　facts　he　proved　were　not　matters　of　moment。　This　was　enough　to　hinder　people　from　telling　any　truth　whatsoever　against　the　minister；　because　a　matter　of　moment　is　entirely　relative；　and　what　may　be　of　moment　to　one　is　not　so　to　another。

The　law　of　Honorius　punished　with　death　any　person　that　purchased　a　freedman　as　a　slave；　or　that　gave　him　molestation。＇30＇　He　should　not　have　made　use　of　so　vague　an　expression；　the　molestation　given　a　man　depends　entirely　on　the　degree　of　his　sensibility。

When　the　law　has　to　impose　a　penalty；　it　should　avoid　as　much　as　possible　the　estimating　it　in　money。　The　value　of　money　changes　from　a　thousand　causes；　and　the　same　denomination　continues　without　the　same　thing。　Every　one　knows　the　story　of　that　impudent　fellow　at　Rome＇31＇　who　used　to　give　those　he　met　a　box　on　the　ear；　and　afterwards　tendered　them　the　five…and…twenty　pence　of　the　law　of　the　Twelve　Tables。

When　the　law　has　once　fixed　the　idea　of　things；　it　should　never　return　to　vague　expressions。　The　ordinance　of　Louis　XIV＇32＇　concerning　criminal　matters；　after　an　exact　enumeration　of　the　causes　in　which　the　king　is　immediately　concerned；　adds　these　words；　〃and　those　which　in　all　times　have　been　subject　to　the　determination　of　the　king's　judges〃；　this　again　renders　arbitrary　what　had　just　been　fixed。　Charles　VII　says＇33＇　he　has　been　informed　that　the　parties　appeal　three；　four；　and　six　months　after　judgment；　contrary　to　the　custom　of　the　kingdom　in　a　country　where　custom　prevailed；　he　therefore　ordains　that　they　shall　appeal　forthwith；　unless　there　happens　to　be　some　fraud　or　deceit　on　the　part　of　the　attorney；＇34＇　or　unless　there　be　a　great　or　evident　cause　to　discharge　the　appeal。　The　end　of　this　law　destroys　the　beginning；　and　it　destroys　it　so　effectually；　that　they　used　afterwards　to　appeal　during　the　space　of　thirty　years。＇35＇

The　law　of　the　Lombards　does　not　allow　a　woman　that　has　taken　a　religious　habit；＇36＇　though　she　has　made　no　vow；　to　marry；　because；　says　this　law；　〃if　a　spouse　who　has　been　contracted　to　a　woman　only　by　a　ring　cannot　without　guilt　be　married　to　another；　for　a　much　stronger　reason　the　spouse　of　God　or　of　the　blessed　Virgin。〃　Now；　I　say；　that　in　laws　the　arguments　should　be　drawn　from　one　reality　to　another；　and　not　from　reality　to　figure；　or　from　figure　to　reality。

A　law　enacted　by　Constantine＇37＇　ordains　that　the　single　testimony　of　a　bishop　should　be　sufficient　without　listening　to　any　other　witnesses。　This　prince　took　a　very　short　method；　he　judged　of　affairs　by　persons；　and　of　persons　by　dignities。

The　laws　ought　not　to　be　subtle；　they　are　designed　for　people　of　common　understanding；　not　as　an　art　of　logic；　but　as　the　plain　reason　of　a　father　of　a　family。

When　there　is　no　necessity　for　exceptions　and　limitations　in　a　law；　it　is　much　better　to　omit　them：　details　of　that　kind　throw　people　into　new　details。

No　alteration　should　be　made　in　a　law　without　sufficient　reason。　Justinian　ordained　that　a　husband　might　be　repudiated　and　yet　the　wife　not　lose　her　portion；　if　for　the　space　of　two　years　he　had　been　incapable　of　consummating　the　marriage。＇38＇　He　altered　his　law　afterwards；　and　allowed　the　poor　wretch　three　years。＇39＇　But　in　a　case　of　that　nature　two　years　are　as　good　as　three；　and　three　are　not　worth　more　than　two。

When　a　legislator　condescends　to　give　the　reason　of　his　law　it　ought　to　be　worthy　of　its　majesty。　A　Roman　law　decrees　that　a　blind　man　is　incapable　to　plead；　because　he　cannot　see　the　ornaments　of　the　magistracy。＇40＇　So　bad　a　reason