the spirit of laws-第123节

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　the　dumb；　because　he　could　not　pronounce　the　terms　of　nomination；　the　prodigal；　because　as　he　was　excluded　from　the　management　of　all　affairs；　he　could　not　sell　his　inheritance。　I　omit　any　further　examples。

Wills　being　made　in　the　assembly　of　the　people　were　rather　the　acts　of　political　than　of　civil　laws；　a　public　rather　than　a　private　right；　whence　it　followed　that　the　father；　while　his　son　was　under　his　authority；　could　not　give　him　leave　to　make　a　will。

Among　most　nations；　wills　are　not　subject　to　greater　formalities　than　ordinary　contracts；　because　both　the　one　and　the　other　are　only　expressions　of　the　will　of　him　who　makes　the　contract；　and　both　are　equally　a　private　right。　But　among　the　Romans；　where　testaments　were　derived　from　the　public　law；　they　were　attended　with　much　greater　formalities　than　other　affairs；＇16＇　and　this　is　still　the　case　in　those　provinces　of　France　which　are　governed　by　the　Roman　law。

Testaments　being；　as　I　have　said；　a　law　of　the　people；　they　ought　to　be　made　with　the　force　of　a　command；　and　in　such　terms　as　are　called　direct　and　imperative。＇17＇　Hence　a　rule　was　formed；　that　they　could　neither　give　nor　transmit　an　inheritance　without　making　use　of　the　imperative　words：　whence　it　followed；　that　they　might　very　justly　in　certain　cases　make　a　substitution；＇18＇　and　ordain；　that　the　inheritance　should　pass　to　another　heir；　but　that　they　could　never　make　a　fiduciary　bequest；＇19＇　that　is；　charge　any　one　in　terms　of　entreaty　to　restore　an　inheritance；　or　a　part　of　it；　to　another。

When　the　father　neither　instituted　his　son　his　heir；　nor　disinherited　him；　the　will　was　annulled；　but　it　was　valid；　though　he　did　not　disinherit　his　daughter；　nor　institute　her　his　heiress。　The　reason　is　plain：　when　he　neither　instituted　nor　disinherited　his　son；　he　did　an　injury　to　his　grandson；　who　might　have　succeeded　ab　intestato　to　his　father；　but　in　neither　instituting　nor　disinheriting　his　daughter；　he　did　no　injury　to　his　daughter's　children；　who　could　not　succeed　ab　intestato　to　their　mother；　because　they　were　neither　sui　h？redes；　nor　agnati。＇20＇

The　laws　of　the　ancient　Romans　concerning　successions；　being　formed　with　the　same　spirit　which　dictated　the　division　of　lands；　did　not　sufficiently　restrain　the　riches　of　women；　thus　a　door　was　left　open　to　luxury；　which　is　always　inseparable　from　this　sort　of　opulence。　Between　the　second　and　third　Punic　war；　they　began　to　perceive　the　evil　and　made　the　Voconian　law；＇21＇　but　as　they　were　induced　to　this　by　the　most　important　considerations；　as　but　few　monuments　have　reached　us　that　take　notice　of　this　law；　and　as　it　has　hitherto　been　spoken　of　in　a　most　confused　manner；　I　shall　endeavour　to　clear　it　up。

Cicero　has　preserved　a　fragment；　which　forbids　the　instituting　a　woman　an　heiress；　whether　she　was　married　or　unmarried。＇22＇

The　Epitome　of　Livy；　where　he　speaks　of　this　law；　says　no　more：＇23＇　it　appears　from　Cicero＇24＇　and　St。　Augustine＇25＇　that　the　daughter；　though　an　only　child；　was　comprehended　in　the　prohibition。

Cato；　the　elder；　contributed　all　in　his　power　to　get　this　law　passed。＇26＇　Aulus　Gellius　cites　a　fragment　of　a　speech；＇27＇　which　he　made　on　this　occasion。　By　preventing　the　succession　of　women；　his　intent　was　to　take　away　the　source　of　luxury；　as　by　undertaking　the　defence　of　the　Oppian　law；　he　intended　to　put　a　stop　to　luxury　itself。

In　the　Institutes　of　Justinian＇28＇　and　Theophilus；＇29＇　mention　is　made　of　a　chapter　of　the　Voconian　law　which　limits　the　power　of　bequeathing。　In　reading　these　authors；　everybody　would　imagine　that　this　chapter　was　made　to　prevent　the　inheritance　from　being　so　exhausted　by　legacies　as　to　render　it　unworthy　of　the　heir's　acceptance。　But　this　was　not　the　spirit　of　the　Voconian　law。　We　have　just　seen　that　they　had　in　view　the　hindering　women　from　inheriting　an　estate。　The　article　of　this　law；　which　set　bounds　to　the　power　of　bequeathing　entered　into　this　view：　for　if　people　had　been　possessed　of　the　liberty　to　bequeath　as　much　as　they　pleased；　the　women　might　have　received　as　legacies　what　they　could　not　receive　by　succession。

The　Voconian　law　was　made　to　hinder　the　women　from　growing　too　wealthy；　for　this　end　it　was　necessary　to　deprive　them　of　large　inheritances；　and　not　of　such　as　were　incapable　of　supporting　luxury。　The　law　fixed　a　certain　sum　to　be　given　to　the　women　whom　it　deprived　of　the　succession。　Cicero；＇30＇　from　whom　we　have　this　particular；　does　not　tell　us　what　was　the　sum；　but　by　Dio　we　are　informed　it　was　a　hundred　thousand　sesterces。＇31＇

The　Voconian　law　was　made　to　regulate　opulence；　not　to　lay　a　restraint　upon　poverty；　hence　Cicero＇32＇　informs　us　that　it　related　only　to　those　whose　names　were　registered　in　the　censors'　books。

This　furnished　a　pretence　for　eluding　the　law：　it　is　well　known　that　the　Romans　were　extremely　fond　of　set　forms；　and　we　have　already　taken　notice　that　it　was　the　spirit　of　the　republic　to　follow　the　letter　of　the　law。　There　were　fathers　who　would　not　give　in　their　names　to　be　enrolled　by　the　censors；　because　they　would　have　it　in　their　power　to　leave　the　succession　to　a　daughter：　and　the　pr？tors　determined　that　this　was　no　violation　of　the　Voconian　law　since　it　was　not　contrary　to　the　letter　of　it。

One　Anius　Asellus　had　appointed　his　daughter　his　sole　heir　and　executrix。　He　had　a　right　to　make　this　disposition；　says　Cicero；＇33＇　he　was　not　restrained　by　the　Voconian　law；　since　he　was　not　included　in　the　census。　Verres；　during　the　time　of　his　pr？torship；　had　deprived　Anius'　daughter　of　the　succession；　and　Cicero　maintains　that　Verres　had　been　bribed；　otherwise　he　would　not　have　annulled　a　disposition　which　all　the　other　pr？tors　had　confirmed。

What　kind　of　citizens　then　must　those　have　been；　who　were　not　registered　in　the　census　in　which　all　the　freemen　of　Rome　were　included？　According　to　the　institution　of　Servius　Tullius；　mentioned　by　Dionysius　of　Halicarnassus；＇34＇　every　citizen　not　enrolled　in　the　census　became　a　slave；　even　Cicero　himself　observes＇35＇　that　such　a　man　forfeited　his　liberty；　and　the　same　thing　is　affirmed　by　Zonaras。　There　must　have　been　therefore　a　difference　between　not　being　in　the　census　according　to　the　spirit　of　the　Voconian　law；　and　not　being　in　it　according　to　the　spirit　of　Servius　Tullius'　institutions。

They　whose　names　were　not　registered　in　the　first　five　classes；＇36＇　in　which　the　inhabitants　ranked　in　proportion　to　their　fortunes；　were　not　comprised　in　the　census　according　to　the　spirit　of　the　Voconian　law：　they　who　were　not　enrolled　in　one　of　these　six　classes；　or　who　were　not　ranked　by　the　censors　among　such　as　were　called　？rarii；　were　not　included　in　the　census　according　to　the　spirit　of　Servius'　institutions。　Such　was　the　force　of　nature；　that　to　elude　the　Voconian　law　fathers　submitted　to　the　disgrace　of　being　confounded　in　the　sixth　class　with　the　proletarii　and　capite　censi；　or　perhaps　to　have　their　names　entered　in　the　C？rites　tabul？。＇37＇

We　have　elsewhere　observed　that　the　Roman　laws　did　not　admit　of　fiduciary　bequests。　The　hopes　of　evading　the　Voconian　law　were　the　cause　of　their　being　introduced：　they　instituted　an　heir　qualified　by　the　law；　and　they　begged　he　would　resign　the　succession　to　a　person　whom　the　law　had　excluded；　this　new　method　of　disposition　was　productive　of　very　different　effects。　Some　resigned　the　inheritance；　and　the　conduct　of　Sextus　Peduccus　on　an　occasion　of　this　nature　was　very　remarkable。＇38＇　A　considerable　succession　was　left　him；　and　nobody　living　knew　that　he　was　desired　to　resign　it　to　another；　when　he　waited　upon　the　widow　of　the　testator　and　made　over　to　her　the　whole　fortune　belonging　to　her　late　husband。

Others　kept　possession　of　the　inheritance；　and　here　the　example　of　P。　Sextilius　Rufus　is　also　famous；　having　been　made　use　of　by　Cicero　in　his　disputations　against　the　Epicureans。＇39＇　〃In　my　younger　days；〃　says　he；　〃I　was　desired　by　Sextilius　to　accompany　him　to　his　friends；　in　order　to　know　whether　he　ought　to　restore　the　inheritance　of　Quintus　Fadius　Gallus　to　his　daughter　Fadia。　There　were　several　young　people　present；　with　others　of　more　maturity　and　judgment；　and　not　one　of　them　was　of　opinion　that　he　should　give　more　to　Fadia　than　the　lady　was　entitled　to　by　the　Voconian　law。　In　consequence　of　this；　Sextilius　kept　possession　of　a　fine　estate；　of　which　he　would　not　have　retained　a　single　sestertius　had　he　preferred　justice　to　utility。　It　is　possible；　added　he；　that　you　would　have　resigned　the　inheritance；　nay　it　is　possible　that　Epicurus　himself　would　have　resigned　it；　but　you　would　not　have　acted　according　to　your　own　principles。〃　Here　I　shall　pause　a　little　to　reflect。

It　is　a　misfortune　inherent　in　humanity　that　legislators　should　be　sometimes　obliged　to　enact　laws　repugnant　to　the　dictates　of　nature：　such　was　the　Voconian　law。　The　reason　is；　the　legislature　considers　the　society　rather　than　the　citizen；　and　the　citizen　rather　than　the　man。　The　law　sacrificed　both　the　citizen　and　the　man；　and　directed　its　views　to　the　prosperity　of　the　republic。　Suppose　a　person　made　a　fiduciary　bequest　in　favour　of　his　daughter；　the　law　paid　no　regard　to　the　sentiments　of　nature　in　the　father；　nor　to　the　filial　piety　of　the　daughter；　all　it　had　an　eye　to　was　the　person　to　whom　the　bequest　was