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individuals who were deprived of interpersonal contact for extended periods would undergo 
deterioration in their basic personality structure。 

Consider Sullivan’s definition of personality for a moment (the relatively enduring pattern of 
recurrent interpersonal situations which characterize a human life)。 The significant aspect of this 
definition is that Sullivan intended it to include those interpersonal relationships that are illusory 
as well as those which are real。 So; in Sullivan’s theory; even the recluse and the psychotic have a 
“personality。” Many other theories seem to apply only to the normally functioning psyche。 

Sullivan and Freud shared a belief that human beings strive toward a reduction of inner tension; 
that the ideal human state is one of euphoria—a condition of total equilibrium。 Sullivan saw 
tension as the opposite of euphoria; reciprocally related to it; and as a state similar to a state of 
terror。 Of course; both extremes can only be approached and neither exists in nature; we exist 
somewhere on the continuum between the two。 He posited seven specific epochs or stages through 
which personality may develop; each epoch representing an optimal time for certain innate 
capacities to reach fruition。 Since he posits “epochs;” you can see that Sullivan was a stage theorist。 

Epoch 1: Infancy。 Infancy begins at birth and continues until the appearance of articulate speech。 
This time is highlighted by the influence of maternal tenderness and anxiety。 The oral zone is 
important here; as it brings food and sustenance; as well as breathing; crying; and thumb…sucking。 

Nursing provides the infant with its first prototaxic mode or experience in interpersonal 
relationships。 This is a primitive mode of experiencing internal and external stimuli; is prominent 
in early infancy; consists of successive momentary discrete states; and cannot be municated to 
others or formulated into symbols (i。e。; language)。 

Around 12 to 18 months of life; trial…and…error language begins to appear; with early sounds being 
imitations of those in the environment This represents the parataxic mode; and it ushers in the 
second stage of personality development。 The parataxic mode is a way of experiencing internal and 
external stimuli that is characterized by use of private symbols and a lack of the conventional 
concepts of cause and effect。 

Past infancy and moving into childhood; we see the development of the self…system; the organized 

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CHAPTER 14: UNDERSTANDING HUMAN PERSONALITY 

perception of one’s self。 The self…system includes the desirable “good…me” and the undesirable 
“bad…me。” The system is a result of experiences with one’s own body and the reflected opinions of 
significant others; and has anxiety reduction as its primary goal。 

Epoch 2: Childhood。 Children now begin to develop use of language and to acquire responses for 
averting anxiety and parental punishment。 These responses include deception; rationalization; 
behaving in the way parents expect in order to please them; and increasing the use of sublimation。 
Of course; some punishment does inevitably occur; and this results in growth of the “bad…me” part 
of the self…system。 As long as parents continue to reinforce the “good…me” part of the child’s self…
system; the child will adjust normally。 

Epoch 3: The Juvenile Era。 This epoch begins with the emergence of the need for playmates; which 
is about the time the child enters school。 The syntaxic mode bees prominent now; and is the most 
highly developed mode of experiencing internal and external stimuli。 This mode is characterized by 
use of socially understood symbols (i。e。; words and numbers); and by the understanding of 
conventional ideas of cause and effect。 According to Sullivan; the ability to live with and among 
other people will have developed by the end of this epoch。 

Epoch 4: Preadolescence。 This stage begins with the emergence of the need for a more intimate 
relationship with a specific member of the same sex; Sullivan called this individual the chum。 The 
need for the chum appears around ages 8 to 10 years; and Sullivan considered this relationship 
critical to the child’s future ability to form intimate relationships of both a sexual and nonsexual 
nature during the adult years。 Sullivan felt that an effective chumship could be instrumental in 
altering excessive egocentricity (such as tendencies to pout when things go wrong); over 
dependence and irresponsibility; and the misguided belief that we should be liked by everyone。 He 
saw the chum as a sort of reality check between childhood and adolescence。 In addition; during 
this period; we see the formation of the first structured social groups; such as scout troops。 

Epoch 5: Early Adolescence。 This epoch begins with puberty and the appearance of the lust 
dynamism that leads to the desire for a close relationship with a member of the opposite sex。 
Sullivan felt this period to be a great one for maladjustment; due to the societal restrictions on the 
adolescent’s ability to satisfy the lust dynamism。 He also noted that the adolescent’s early attempts 
at heterosexual relationships can (and often do) lead to embarrassing outes; such as impotence; 
frigidity; premature ejaculation; any and all of which can lead to serious damage to one’s self…
esteem。 He felt that parental support during this time was critical to the successful transition of this 
period。 If the attempts at heterosexual relationships are successful; and they usually are; then the 
child has taken another positive step up the ladder of interpersonal relations。 

Epoch 6: Late Adolescence。 Late adolescence originates with the achievement of satisfying sexual 
activity。 Of course; the adolescent is now functioning (at least part of the time) in the realm of 
reality; such as working and paying taxes; and having increased social responsibilities (helping 
care for an elderly grandparent or a younger sibling; moving away from home and accepting the 
concurrent adult life…roles)。 Sullivan feels that those adolescents having the experience of attending 
college have an advantage。 They have an extra few years to make this transition beyond their high…
school graduation。 

Epoch 7: Adulthood。 Harry Stack Sullivan did not say a great deal about adulthood; except that it 
represented the pletion of personality development。 The reason Sullivan did not say much 
about adulthood is that he was a psychiatrist; and psychiatrists do not get many opportunities to 
observe normally functioning adults。 Sullivan was smart enough to know that what he observed in 
the pathological adult population was not applicable to the rest of the nonpathological population。 

Nature versus Nurture 

An issue that has dominated developmental psychology for years is the nature—nurture 

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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

controversy。 This issue is directly related to any discussion of personality as well。 You might ask 
students how much of personality they believe is genetically inherited (nature) and how much is 
learned from the environment (nurture)。 While generally; researchers argue that both appear to play 
a role in personality; you might point out that how much of a role each plays may depend on what 
part of personality you are discussing。 For example; genetics clearly plays an important role in 
nervous system development; which can affect traits such as introversion。 On the other hand; the 
environment (nurture) plays an important role in emotional maturation; as evidenced by Harlow 
and Spitz’s studies on the effects of early isolation。 Ultimately; one of the best ways to sum up the 
research on this controversy is to say that nature sets a potential range of development; and nurture 
determines where; within that range; a person will end up。 With some aspects of personality; 
nature sets a wide range of development; giving the environment plenty of room to have an impact。 
With other aspects of personality; nature sets a narrow range of development; leaving the 
environment room for only a minor impact。 With most aspects of personality; nature appears to set 
a moderate range of potential development。 

Personality: Add Women and Stir! 

The topic of personality serves as an excellent base for discussing the feminist perspective within 
the field of psychology。 Torrey (1987) has incorporated a five…phase sequence of sex…integration; 
proposed by McIntosh; into the psychology of personality。 

Phase 1: Womenless Psychology。 Torrey provides several interesting examples of womenless 
psychology; for example; only four of the 707 pages of Hall and Lindzey’s text on personality 
are devoted to a woman’s theory of personality (Karen Horney’s)。 Sullivan; Murray; 
McClelland; and Kohlberg based their work on studies of men; although the theories usually 
are described as universal。 

Phase 2: Adding Women to Psychology。 In this phase; women’s work is included in the field of 
psychology; but usually within the overall male…oriented paradigm。 Karen Horney’s 
contributions within the psychoanalytic field would represent this phase。 

Phase 3: Women as

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