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心理学与生活-第87节

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a) Drive for self…actualization sometimes conflicts with need for 
approval from the self and others; especially when the 
individual feels certain obligations or conditions must be met 
to gain approval; as in: 

b) Rogers’ mandate of unconditional positive regard in child…
rearing 

c) Horney’s idea that people have a “real self” that requires 
favorable environment to be actualized 

3。 Humanistic theories have also been described as holistic; 
dispositional; phenomenological; and existential 
a) Holistic: explain individuals’ separate acts in terms of their 
entire personalities 

b) Dispositional: focus on innate qualities within the individual 
that exert a major influence over the direction behavior will 
take 

c) Phenomenological: emphasize the individual’s frame of 
reference and subjective view of reality; rather than the frame 
of an observer or a therapist 

d) Existentialist: focus on higher mental processes 

C。 Evaluation of Humanistic Theories 
1。 Criticisms 
a) Concepts are fuzzy; and difficult to explore empirically 

b) Traditionally; did not focus on particular characteristics of the 
individual 

c) Theories were more about human nature and qualities shared 
by all people; than about individual personality or the basis of 
difference among individuals 

d) Emphasis of the role of the self as source of experience and 
action neglects environmental variables that also influence 
behavior 

2。 Contemporary research emphasizes psychobiography; “the systematic 
use of psychological theory to transform a life into a coherent and 
illuminating story” 
V。Social…Learning and Cognitive Theories 
A。 Introduction 
1。 Learning theory orientation looks to environmental circumstances that 
control behavior 
2。 Personality is viewed as the sum of overt and covert responses that are 
reliably elicited by the individual’s reinforcement history 
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CHAPTER 14: UNDERSTANDING HUMAN PERSONALITY 

3。 Learning by social imitation is by observation of others’ behavior; 
without actual performance of the response 
4。 Contemporary theories emphasize importance of both cognitive and 
behavioral processes 
B。 Mischel’s Cognitive…Affective Personality Theory 
1。 Posits that response to a specific environmental input depends on a 
person’s: 
a) Encoding strategies; the way ining information is 
processed: 

(i) Selective attending 
(ii) Categorization 
(iii) Making associations 
b) Expectancies and beliefs: anticipation of likely outes for 
given actions in particular situations 

c) Affects: your feelings and emotions; including physiological 
responses 

d) Goals and values: outes and affective states valued by the 
individual 

e) petencies and self…regulatory plans; rules developed by the 
individual for guiding performance; setting goals; and 
evaluating effectiveness 

2。 Nature of variables for a given individual result from history of 
observations and interactions with others and with inanimate aspects 
of the physical environment 
3。 Beliefs about others’ personalities es from tracking the way 
different situations bring out different behaviors 
C。 Bandura’s Cognitive Social…Learning Theory 
1。 bines principles of learning with an emphasis on human 
interactions in social settings 
2。 Stresses the cognitive processes involved in acquiring and 
maintaining patterns of behavior and; thus; personality 
3。 Critical constructs 
a) Reciprocal determinism: the examining of all ponents if one 
wishes to understand human behavior; personality; and 
social ecology pletely 

b) Observational learning: the process by which the individual 
changes his or her behavior; based on observations of another 
individual’s behavior 

c) Self…efficacy: the belief that one can perform adequately in a 
particular situation。 Self…efficacy judgments include: 

(i) Vicarious experience 
(ii) Persuasion 
(iii) Monitoring of emotional arousal when thinking 
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

about a task 

4。 Self…efficacy acknowledges the importance of the environment; 
including perceptions of supportiveness or unsupportiveness of that 
environment 
D。 Cantor’s Social Intelligence Theory 
1。 Social intelligence refers to the expertise the individual brings to his or 
her experience of life tasks 
2。 Three types of individual differences are defined: 
a) Choice of life goals 
b) Knowledge relevant to social interactions 
c) Strategies for implementing goals 
3。 Social intelligence offers a new perspective on how personality 
predicts consistency 
E。 Evaluation of Social…Learning and Cognitive Theories 
1。 One set of criticisms points out that theories generally overlook 
emotion as an important ponent of personality 
a) Emphasize rational; information…processing variables 

b) Emotions are perceived as by…products of thoughts and 
behavior; instead of being assigned specific; independent 
importance 

c) Theories do not fully recognize the impact of unconscious 
motivation on both behavior and affect 

2。 A second set of criticisms focuses on vague explanations relative to 
creation of personal constructs and petencies 
a) Cognitive theories focus on the individual’s perception of 
current behavior setting serves to obscure the individual’s 
history 

b) Kelly’s theory is more a conceptual system than a theory; as it 
focuses on structure and processes; saying little about content 
of personal constructs 

VI。 Self Theories 
A。 William James was the earliest advocate of theories addressing how each individual 
manages his or her sense of self。 James identified three ponents of the self…experience: 
1。 Material me: the bodily self; along with surrounding physical objects 
2。 Social me: the individual’s awareness of how others view him or her 
3。 Spiritual me: the self that monitors private thoughts and feelings 
B。 Dynamic Aspects of Self…Concepts 
1。 Self…concept is a dynamic mental structure that motivates; interprets; 
organizes; mediates; and regulates intrapersonal and interpersonal 
behaviors and processes 
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CHAPTER 14: UNDERSTANDING HUMAN PERSONALITY 

2。 ponents of self…concept include 
a) Memories about one’s self 
b) Beliefs about one’s traits; motives; values; and abilities 
c) Ideal self: the self that one would most like to bee 
d) Possible selves that one contemplates enacting 
e) Positive or negative evaluations of one’s self (self…esteem) 
f) Beliefs about what others think of one’s self 
3。 Self…concept includes schemas about the self; self…schemas; that allow 
one to organize information about one’s self and influence the way 
one processes information about others 
4。 Possible selves are “the ideal selves that we would very much like to 
bee;” and are also “the selves we could bee and the selves we 
are afraid of being” 
C。 Self…Esteem and Self…Presentation 
1。 Self…esteem is a generalized evaluation of the self; influencing thoughts; 
moods; and behavior 
a) Low self…esteem may be characterized (in part) by less 
certainty about the self and may include the feeling that one 
does not know much about one’s self 

b) Doubt in one’s ability to perform a task may see engagement 
in self…handicapping behavior; in which one deliberately 
sabotages one’s own performance; for purposes of 

(i) Having a ready…made excuse for failure that does not 
imply lack of ability 
(ii) Failure can be blamed on low effort; without finding 
out if one really had the ability to make it 
2。 Self…presentation is an aspect of self…esteem; explaining behavioral 
differences between individuals with high and low self…esteem 
a) Individuals with high self…esteem present themselves to the 
world as ambitious; aggressive risk takers 

b) Individuals with low self…esteem present themselves as 
cautious and prudent 

c) Both of these presentations are for public consumption 

d) Self…monitoring; a personality trait related to the individual’s 
habitual style of self…presentation; is the tendency to regulate 
behavior to meet social demands or to create a desired social 
impression 

D。 The Cultural Construction of Self 
1。 Individualistic cultures encourage independent construals of self 
2。 Collectivist cultures encourage interdependent construals of self 
E。 Evaluation of Self…Theories 
1。 Self theories succeed at capturing the individual’s concept of their 
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

own personality and how they wish to be perceived by others 

2。 Critics of self theory approach to personality argue against its limitless 
boundaries。 Because many issues are relevant to the self and to the 
self…concept; it is not always clear which factors are most important for 
predicting behavior 
3。 Emphasis on the self as a social construct is not entirely consistent 
with evidence that some facets of personality may be heritable 
VII。 paring Personality Theories 
A。 The Five Most Important Differences in Assumptions about Personality 
1。 Heredity versus Environment 
a) Trait theories are split on this issue 
b) Freudian theory depends heavily on heredity 
c) Humanistic; social…learning; cognitive; and self theories 
emp

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