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David McClelland (b。 1917) 

David McClelland attended Wesleyan University and the University of Missouri before earning his 
Ph。D。 at Yale in 1941。 He returned to teach at Wesleyan; then Bryn Mawr; Harvard; and Boston 
University。 McClelland’s research and theoretical work on human motivation; particularly 
regarding achievement and power; has influenced an entire generation of research psychologists。 
Additionally; his research; and that of his colleagues; has been applied to many social contexts; 
including industry and the study of problem drinking。 McClelland has authored a number of 

books; including The Achievement Motive (1953)。 

Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) 

Maslow received his Ph。D。 at the University of Wisconsin in 1934; having studied under Harry 
Harlow。 He taught at Wisconsin for a year; followed by appointments at Teacher’s College of 
Columbia University; Brooklyn College; and; finally; Brandeis University; where he spent most of 
his academic career。 Maslow moved to Menlo Park; California; in 1969 as a resident fellow of the 
Laughlin Foundation。 

Maslow is considered one of the foremost spokespeople of humanistic psychology; and was 

founder of the Journal of Humanistic Psychology。 He is best known for his theory of motivation; and 
the concept of a hierarchy of needs; ranging from basic survival needs to the need for self…
actualization。 His influential works include Toward a Psychology of Being (1962) and Religion; 
Values; and Peak Experiences (1964)。 He served in 1968 as president of the American Psychological 

Association。 

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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

TIMELINE 

Yea Event 
r 
19141918 
World War I was fought。 
1929 The Great Depression in America began。 
1938 Henry Murray postulated that many human behaviors are motivated by 
the “need to achieve;” an internal tendency to strive for success。 
19391945 
World War II was fought。 
1943 Clark Hull; a psychologist at Yale; proposed that behavior is motivated 
primarily through drive reduction; through reinforcement that decreases 
biological tension within an organism。 
19501953 
The Korean War was fought。 
1953 David McClelland developed the first research methods for studying 
achievement motivation。 
1955 Physiologist Donald Hebb proposed that motivation to obtain or 
maintain an optimal level of arousal is the force that directs and 
organizes behavior。 
1969 The first human moon landing occurred。 
1970 Abraham Maslow proposed that all people are motivated by deficiency 
and growth needs to achieve their innate potential as human beings。 
1974 Richard Solomon and J。 D。 Corbit published their opponent…process 
model of motivation; the notion that a strong emotional state stimulates 
organisms to seek the opposite emotional state。 

236 


CHAPTER 12: MOTIVATION 

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READINGS 

Buck; R。 (1988)。 Human Motivation and Emotion (2nd ed。)。 New York: John Wiley & Sons。 A broad 
introduction to the literature on motivation and emotion; with an emphasis on human studies 
and on animal studies with direct application to human beings。 

Festinger; L。 (1957)。 A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance。 Evanston; IL: Row; Peterson。 A classic text in 
motivation and social psychology。 Demonstrates how thoughts; specifically inconsistent 
thoughts; can motivate changes in belief and behavior。 

Geen; R。 (1995)。 Human Motivation: A Social Psychological Approach。 Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole。 An 
introduction to motivation that approaches the topic from a social perspective and relates it to 
everyday life。 

Lepper; M。; Sethi; S。; Dialdin; D。; & Drake; M。 (1997)。 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation: A 
Developmental Perspective。 New York: Cambridge University Press。 Explores the influence of both 
intrinsic and extrinsic rewards on motivation and behavior。 Discusses the situations in which 
extrinsic reward can decrease intrinsic motivation。 

Maslow; A。 (1943)。 A Theory of Human Motivation。 Psychological Review; 50; 370–396。 Details 
Maslow’s theory of motivation; including his hierarchy of needs。 According to Maslow; humans 
are; “a perpetually wanting animal。” A classic paper。 

McClelland; D。 (1998)。 Human Motivation。 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press。 A well…written 
introduction to the field of human motivation。 

Weiner; B。 (1989)。 Human Motivation。 Englewood Cliffs; NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum。 Provides an 
extensive review of four theories of motivation: drive; field; achievement; and attribution。 

Weiner; B。 (1998)。 Discovering General Laws of Social Motivation。 Hove; Psychology Press/Erlbaum 
(UK) Taylor & Francis。 Advances in Psychological Science; Vol 1: Social; Personal; and Cultural 
Aspects; 93–109。 Proposes a general theory of motivation based on attribution theory。 

Zimbardo; P。 (1966)。 The Cognitive Control of Motivation。 Transactions of the New York Academy of 
Sciences; 28(7); 902–921。 Series of studies shows that both biological drives and emotional 
behavior are controlled by cognitive; psychological; and social variables。 These data accord with 
predictions from cognitive dissonance theory。 The experiments involve both behavioral and 
physiological responses to shock; cognitive control of conditioned eye blink; hypnosis; and 
thirst。 

DISCOVERING PSYCHOLOGY 

PROGRAM 12: MOTIVATION AND EMOTION 

Overview 

A review of what researchers are discovering about why we act and feel as we do; from the 
exhilaration of love to the agony of failure。 

Key Issues 

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs; biological motivation for sexual behavior; reproductive behavior 

237 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

of rats and the physiological effects; physiological and psychological motivation for romantic 

love; the universality of emotions; and the effects of optimism and pessimism on physiology。 

Demonstrations 

Rat sexual behavior。 

Interviews 

Psychologist Norman Adler studies reproductive behavior and its physiological consequence 

in rats。 

Martin Seligman studies the effects of optimism and pessimism on physiology and behavior。 

Abraham Maslow examines the effects of the interplay between human nature and society on 

motivation。 

FILMS AND VIDEOS 

Fear of Fat (1987)。 CHUH; 26 minutes 

Five young women describe their eating disorders and how they overcame them。 For centuries; 
plumpness was considered pretty; but in recent years society has focused on being thin。 So much so 
that for some a simple diet may develop into an erratic; life…threatening pattern of behavior。 An 
excellent; timely film; it acplishes four goals: 

1。 Explains how societal pressures encourage eating disorders 
2。 Explains three eating disorders 
3。 Lists behaviors that aid in overing eating disorders 
4。 Explains the different body types。 
Motivation (1990)。 Insight Media; 30 minutes 

Provides examples of motivation; explaining thoughts; actions; and choices。 Explores factors that 
influence motivation and demonstrates some behavioral extremes such as thrill seeking。 Also 
includes Maslow’s hierarchy of needs。 

CASE STUDY LECTURE LAUNCHER 

“Mike; Let’s Do El Capitan!” 

Many climbers dream of scaling the majestic domed cliff that rises 3200 feet from California’s 
Yosemite Valley; but few succeed。 Mark Wellman had more than the normal number of obstacles to 
overe and number of reasons for not trying。 In 1982; a fall from another Yosemite peak had 
paralyzed both his legs。 However; seven years later; Mark announced that he would climb El 
Capitan。 

For six months; 29…year old Mark strengthened the muscles of his upper body with daily weight 
training and many practice climbs; climbing only with his arms。 Finally; he was ready to do what 
most others thought impossible。 In July 1989; Mark looked up the sheer rock face at its handholds 
on the arduous ascent。 Mark grabbed the first rope and pulled himself up; six inches at a time。 He 
grasped the next rope; another six inches closer to his goal。 For a week; Mike placed ropes and 

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CHAPTER 12: MOTIVATION 

Mark did pull…ups; hundreds a day; six inches at a time。 

On some afternoons; the temperature topped 100°F。 The heat; however; was never as bad as the 
wind; which gusted fiercely between 11 A。M。 and 8 P。M。 everyday。 At times; the wind pushed them 
out from the cliff face; but they persevered。 On the eighth night of their adventure; Mark and Mike 
tied themselves into their sleeping bags and bivouacked on a narrow ledge。 The next morning they 
would begin their final ascent: 300 feet for Mike; 600 pull…ups for Mark。 After a total of more then 
7;000 pull…ups; Mark’s body ached。 Nevertheless; the next day pain gave way to euphoria as Mark 
pulled himself up the last six inches to the top of El Capitan。 He had achieved what some thought 
impossible。 

What motivates someone to try what others deem impossible? Having already bee paralyzed 
from one fall; why did he choose to risk another? What distinguishes him from those of us who; 
with all limbs functioning; can barely roll out of bed in the morning to hit the snooze button on the 
alarm clock? What about Mark’s friend; Mike? What made him take on the major re

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