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Jean Piaget’s stage theories of object permanence and sensory…motor development are explained 
and challenged。 Research with newborns has revealed that infants possess a basic perception of 
cause and effect; number; and object permanence and that memory skills and the capacity to form 
concepts are present much earlier than formerly believed。 

The Seven Ages of the Brain (1995)。 Films for the Humanities & Sciences; 58 minutes 

Focuses on how a brain grows from a fertilized egg and how our brains change; even after birth; 
right up to old age。 The establishment of connections between brain cells occurs not only in the 
womb; but also after birth。 These connections can be modified; or even abolished; in accordance 
with certain changes in the environment。 Part of the British Royal Institute Lecture series。 

Aging Successfully: Psychological Aspects of Growing Old (1998)。 Davidson Films; 30 minutes 

Discusses the concepts developed by the Baltes for assessing the means by which some people cope 
better psychologically with old age。 Selection; optimization; and pensation are three important 
coping strategies to deal with the decline in physical and some mental functions; while developing 
wisdom。 

plaints of a Dutiful Daughter (1995)。 Women Make Movies; 44 minutes 

Shows interactions between an Alzheimer’s patient and her daughter。 The daughter discusses the 
various stages of the disease; how she dealt with each and how she arrived at a positive resolution。 

218 


CHAPTER 11: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN 

219 


CHAPTER 12 
Motivation 

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 

On pletion of this chapter; students should be able to: 

1。 Describe the five functions of motivational concepts 
2。 Explain the various sources of motivation; including instinctual; emotional; and cognitive 
sources 
3。 municate the difference between William James’ and Sigmund Freud’s conception on 
instinctual behaviors 
4。 Describe social learning theory and its relationship to internal and external sources of 
attributions 
5。 Identify the two major eating disorders 
6。 Explain the different reproductive strategies that may be employed by males and females 
7。 Describe the four phases of human sexual response for males and females 
8。 Show an understanding of the concept of need for achievement and discuss how it relates 
to motivation 
9。 Describe the concept of locus of control and its relationship to motivation 
10。 Explain Maslow’s hierarchy of needs 
CHAPTER OUTLINE 

I。 Understanding Motivation 
A。 Motivation is the general term for all the processes involved in starting; directing; and 
maintaining physical and psychological activities 
B。 Functions of Motivational Concepts 
1。 To relate biology to behavior 
2。 To account for behavioral variability 
3。 To infer private states from public acts 
4。 To assign responsibility for actions 
5。 To explain perseverance despite adversity 
C。 Sources of Motivation 
1。 Drives and Incentives 
a) Drive is defined in biological terms as energy released from an 
organism’s store; the fuel of action 
b) Drive Theory was fully developed by Hull; who believed 

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CHAPTER 12: MOTIVATION 

Motivation was necessary for learning to occur 

(i) Learning is essential for successful adaptation to the 
environment 
(ii) Tension reduction is reinforcing; but is not sufficient to 
explain all types of motivated behavior 
(iii) Organisms seek to maintain homeostasis; a state of 
equilibrium 
c) Behavior can also be motivated by incentives; external stimuli 
or rewards that do not relate directly to biological needs 

2。 Reversal Theory 
a) Apter’s reversal theory hypothesizes four pairs of 
metamotivational states; states that give rise to distinct 
patterns of motivation 

(i) Telic–Paratelic: serious vs。 playful 
(ii) Conformist–Negativistic: pliant vs。 rebellious 
(iii) Mastery–Sympathy: power…oriented vs。 care…oriented 
(iv) Autic–Alloic: concern for self vs。 concern for others 
b) Seeks to explain motivation in terms of reversals from one 
state to another 

3。 Instinctual Behaviors and Learning 
a) Instincts are preprogrammed tendencies that are essential for 
the survival of their species 

b) To what degree is human behavior instinctual? 

(i) James (1890) proposed humans are more reliant on 
instinct than other animals; stating both human and 
animal behaviors are purposive; serving important 
purposes in the organism’s adaptation to its 
environment 
(ii) Freud (1915) proposed that humans experience drive 
states arise from life and death instincts; calling the 
drive state psychic energy 
(iii) Behaviorist data indicating behaviors and emotions 
are learned rather than instinctive in nature helped to 
found instinct theory as an explanation for motivated 
behavior 
4。 Expectations and Cognitive Approaches to Motivation 
a) An expectation is an idea about the future likelihood of getting 
something that is wanted 

b) Significant human motivation derives from the individual’s 
subjective interpretation of reality 

c) Social…learning theory developed the importance of 
expectations in motivating behavior。 The probability of 
engaging in a given behavior is determined by: 

(i) Expectation of attaining a goal that follows the 
219 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

activity 

(ii) Personal value of that goal to the individual 
(iii) A discrepancy between expectations and reality can 
motivate the individual to perform corrective 
behaviors 
d) Heider posited that behavioral oute can be attributed to: 

(i) Dispositional forces; such as lack of effort or low 
intelligence 
(ii) Situational forces; such as a biased exam or instructor 
(iii) Attributions influencing the way the individual will 
behave 
II。Eating 
A。 The Physiology of Eating 
1。 Regulation of effective food intake requires organisms to be equipped 
with mechanisms that acplish four tasks 
a) Detect internal food need 

b) Initiate and organize eating behavior 

c) Monitor quantity and quality of food eaten 

d) Detect when sufficient food has been eaten and stop eating 

2。 Peripheral Responses 
a) Cannon (1934) proposed gastric activity in an empty stomach 
was the sole basis for hunger; an unsupported position on 
discovery that stomach contractions are not a necessary 
condition for hunger 

b) Research shows gastric distension caused by ingestion of 
food causes the individual to stop eating 

3。 Central Responses 
a) Early theories about brain centers for initiation and cessation 
of eating were built around observations of the lateral 
hypothalamus and the ventromedial hypothalunus; leading 
to the dual…center model of response 

b) Dual…center model discredited after learning that the two 
basic signals that initiate eating e from receptors 
monitoring levels of sugar and fat in the blood 

B。 The Psychology of Eating 
1。 Psychological focus is on circumstances in which people try to 
exercise control over the consequences of eating 
2。 Obesity and Dieting 
a) Resting metabolic rate is the rate at which an individual’s 
body bums calories that maintain basic functions 

b) Biological predisposition may or may not “cause” an 

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CHAPTER 12: MOTIVATION 

individual to bee obese 

c) Key is how individual thinks about food and eating behaviors 

d) Herman and Polivy propose the dimension underlying the 
psychology of eating behaviors to be restrained vs。 
unrestrained eating 

(i) Restrained eaters put constant limits on amount of 
food they will let themselves consume 
(ii) Restrained eaters gain weight even when dieting; 
because they bee periodically disinhibited and 
indulge in high…calorie bingeing 
(iii) Psychological consequences of constant dieting can 
create circumstances more likely to lead to weight 
gain than to weight loss 
3。 Eating Disorders and Body Image 
a) Anorexia nervosa: Individual weighs less than 85% of expected 
weight; but continues to express fear of being fat。 These 
individuals may also be bulimic 

b) Bulimia nervosa: Characterized by periods of intense; out…ofcontrol 
eating; or bingeing; followed by efforts to purge the 
body of excess calories through: 

(i) Self…induced vomiting 
(ii) Misuse of laxatives 
(iii) Fasting 
c) Both disorders result in systematic starvation of the body that 
may have serious medical consequences 

d) Prevalence of anorexia nervosa in late…adolescent and young 
adult females is about 0。5 to 1。0 percent 

e) Prevalence of bulimia nervosa during late…adolescent and 
young adult females is about 1。0 to 3。0 percent 

f) Females suffer eating disorders at approximately 10 times the 
rate of males 

III。 Sexual Behaviors 
A。 Nonhuman Sexual Behaviors 
1。 Nonhuman sexual behaviors have reproduction as their primary 
motivation 
2。 Sexual arousal is primarily physiologically determined by 
a) Secretion of hormones 

b) Stereotypical sexual behaviors for all members of a given 
species 

c) Arousal may be initiated by environmental stimuli (e。g。; 
ritualized behavior by potential partners may be a necessary 
condition for sexual response) 

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