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and females within a given society 
a) Provide basic definitions of masculinity and femininity 

b) Much of what is considered masculine or feminine is 
culturally determined 

c) Gender…role socialization begins at birth; with parental 
responses to the infant being based on gender…role stereotypes 

VII。 Moral Development 
A。 Morality is a system of beliefs; values; and underlying judgments about the rightness or 
wrongness of human acts 
B。 Kolhberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning 
1。 Kohlberg founded his study of moral development on the study of 
moral reasoning; the judgments people make about what courses of 
action are correct or incorrect in particular situations 

2。 Kohlberg’s theory predicated on Piagetian cognitive…development 
theory (i。e。; as the child progresses through the stages of cognitive 
growth; he/she assigns differing relative weights to the consequences 
196 


CHAPTER 11: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN 

of an act and to the actor’s intentions) 

3。 Each of Kohlberg’s levels and stages is characterized by a different 
basis for making moral judgments; he was interested in the course of 
action involved in making a moral decision; not the decision itself 
a) Level 1: Preconventional Morality 

(i) Stage 1: Pleasure–pain orientation; reasons for 
behaviors is to avoid pain or not get caught 
(ii) Stage 2: Cost–benefit orientation; reciprocity; reasons 
for behaviors are to obtain rewards 
b) Level II: Conventional Morality 

(i) Stage 3: Good child orientation; behavior is enacted to 
gain acceptance and avoid disapproval 
(ii) Stage 4: Law and order orientation; behavior is 
enacted to follow the rules; and avoid censure by 
authorities 
c) Level III: Principled Morality 

(i) Stage 5: Social contract orientation; to promote social 
welfare 
(ii) Stage 6: Ethical principle orientation; to achieve 
justice and avoid self…condemnation 
(iii) Stage 7: Cosmic orientation; to be true to universal 
principles; feeling oneself part of a cosmic direction 
that transcends social norms 
4。 Four Principles Govern Kohlberg’s Stage Model: 
a) An individual can be at only one of the indicated stages at a 
given time 

b) Everyone goes through the stages in a fixed order 

c) Each stage is more prehensive and plex than the 
preceding one 

d) The same stages occur in every culture 

5。 Stages 1 through 3 appear to parallel the course of cognitive 
development; with most children reaching stage 3 by age 13; with 
much of the controversy with Kohlberg’s theory aimed at stages 4 
through 7 
6。 Moral Reasoning in Adolescents and Adults 
a) Kohlberg’s view was that moral development would continue 
in steady progression; beyond level 3; however; not all 
individuals attain stages 4 through 7 

b) Many adults never reach stage 5; and few go beyond it 

c) Stages 4 through 7 are not found in all cultures and seem 
more associated with advanced education and increased 
verbal ability in Western cultures; features that should not be 
prerequisites for moral achievement 

C。 Gender and Cultural Perspectives on Moral Reasoning 
197 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

1。 Content of latter stages appears subjective 
2。 Understanding each successive latter stage as “more prehensive 
and sophisticated than the preceding” is difficult 
3。 Latter stages have been criticized because they do not recognize that 
adult moral judgments may reflect different but equally moral 
principles 
a) Gilligan argued Kohlberg’s work was biased in that his 
original sample was all male 

b) Kohlberg’s research overlooked potential differences between 
habitual moral judgments of males and females 

c) Gilligan proposed female’s moral development was based on 
a standard of caring for others; and progressing to a stage of 
self…realization; whereas males base their reasoning on a 
standard of justice 

4。 Though Gilligan’s contribution is valued; later research suggests she 
is incorrect to identify unique styles of moral reasoning for males and 
females 
a) Researchers dispute whether gender differences in moral 
reasoning exist 

b) Alleged gender differences may be consequences of the 
difference in social situations that arise in the lives of males 
and females 

c) Studies of gender differences in moral behaviors have found 
no consistent differences 

5。 Adult moral reasoning may best be characterized as a mix between 
considerations of justice and considerations of caring; with the mix 
remaining in place over most of the life span 
a) Moral judgments are affected by general changes in adult 
cognition。 

b) A relevant change in late adulthood is the individual’s 
shifting the basis for judgments away from the details of 
specific situations; and toward the use of general principles 

198 


CHAPTER 11: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN 

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 

1。 In several well…publicized cases; judges have returned custody of children to the biological 
parents; removing the child from his or her adoptive parents or foster parents。 This would 
seem to indicate that there is still a sense of ownership of children in the eyes of the law。 
What do such decisions indicate about the status of the rights of the individual child in 
such cases? Whose “best interests” and rights are the courts protecting? 
2。 Does the class consider adolescence a concept created by developmental psychologists and 
socioeconomic conditions; rather than an actual stage of development? What overall 
societal impact might we see if children today went to work at age 10 or 12; rather than 
remaining in school until they reach 17 or 18 years of age? What was the societal impact of 
work rather than education in years past? What other developmental categories could be 
reframed today; or may need to be reframed in the future? 
3。 Many elderly individuals develop paranoid beliefs。 Some lay persons as well as 
professionals assume this to be a function of the physical deterioration of the brain due to 
encroaching senility。 What alternative psychological explanation could explain why some 
elderly individuals develop beliefs that others are keeping them ignorant of the actual 
condition of their health; plotting against them; etc。? What myths or fallacies appear 
prevalent in your classes? 
4。 Psychologists and sociologists have observed that certain homeless children have the 
ability to “survive” their homeless experience in better psychological health than do some 
others。 Have the class speculate what conditions might predispose a given child to 
survive;” to suffer minimal negative impact from the experience of homelessness。 What 
makes some children resilient; and not others? 
5。 What perceptions does the class have regarding day care? Is day care seen as an option for 
child care; or a necessity? What about employer…sponsored day care centers。 What 
considerations are important to your students regarding this issue? 
6。 Discuss with the class the impact an individual’s gender identity might have on his or her 
sexual orientation。 Have them consider how gender role behaviors and gender role 
stereotypes fit into this discussion。 
7。 Discuss rites of passage; nebulous though they may be; in our Western culture。 What 
occasions mark our transition from one developmental stage of life to the next? How does 
our culture acmodate and acknowledge these transitions? What impact do various 
rites have on us as individuals? Do students feel our culture should have more concrete 
rites of passage; remain as is; or have less? 
8。 What does the class think about “peer pressure”? Is it a viable phenomenon; or a catchall 
invented by parents and behavioral scientists in their attempts to “explain” the sometimes…
annoying behaviors displayed by adolescents? When during development do individuals 
feel it; and when during development does it cease to influence thoughts; feelings; and 
behavior? 
199 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

SUPPLEMENTAL LECTURE MATERIAL 

The Effect of Divorce on Children 

Divorce is troubling; difficult; and painful for children。 Discuss with your class about the negative 
effects a divorce might have on a child between the ages of 2 and 12 who lives with the mother and 
visits with the father on alternate weekends。 After mentioning the issues raised below; ask the class 
how the concerns may be eliminated。 

。 The child may feel that he or she caused the divorce。 
。 The child may feel that the father wouldn’t have left if the father really loved him or her。 
。 The child may feel insecure。 If one parent leaves; the other may leave; too。 If the father is 
unable to keep a weekend visit with the child; the child may feel that he doesn’t want to see 
her or him。 
。 The child misses the things he or she did with the father; and bees lonely when
thinking about games they played together。
。 The child may have a conflict about loyalty to the parents。 
。 The parents may involve the child in their disputes; or use the child as a pawn to
manipulate one another。
。 Financial considerations may make it necessary for the mother to move; and for the child to 
change scho

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