太子爷小说网 > 社科电子书 > 心理学与生活 >

第53节

心理学与生活-第53节

小说: 心理学与生活 字数: 每页4000字

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页,按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页,按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部!
————未阅读完?加入书签已便下次继续阅读!



automatic processes 
II。Language Use 
A。 Language Production 
1。 Language production concerns what people say; as well as the 
processes they go through to produce the message 
a) Includes both signing and writing; as well as speaking 

b) Refers to language producers as speakers and to language 
understanders as listeners 

2。 Audience design requires that; on producing an utterance; one must 
have in mind the audience to which that utterance is directed and 
what knowledge you share with members of that audience 
a) The Cooperative Principle is instructs to speakers to produce 
utterances appropriate to the setting and meaning of the 
ongoing conversation。 There are four maxims that cooperative 
speakers should live by: 

(i) Quantity: Make your contribution as informative as is 
required; but do not make it more informative than 
required 
(ii) Quality: Try to make your contribution one that is true 
(iii) Relation: Be relevant 
(iv) Manner: Be perspicacious; avoid obscurity of 
expression; avoid ambiguity; be brief; be orderly 
b) A presumption of the listener knowing all that you know is 
referred to as mon ground。 Judgments of mon ground 
are based on three sources of evidence: 

145 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

(i) munity membership: Assumptions made by 
language producers about what is likely to be 
mutually known; based on shared membership in 
munities of various sizes 
(ii) Linguistic copresence: Assumptions made by language 
producers that information contained in earlier parts 
of a conversation; or in past conversations; are 
mon ground 
(iii) Physical copresence: Exists when a speaker and a 
listener are directly in the physical presence of objects 
or situations 
3。 Speech Execution and Speech Errors 
a) Speech errors give researchers insight into the planning 
needed to produce utterances 

(i) Speakers must choose content words that best fit their 
ideas 
(ii) Speakers must place the chosen words in the right 
place in the utterance 
(iii) Speakers must fill in the sounds that make up the 
words they wish to utter 
b) Spoonerisms–one type of speech error–consist of an exchange 
of the initial sounds of two or more words in a phrase or 
sentence。 Spoonerisms are more likely to occur when the error 
will still result in real words 

c) Spontaneous and laboratory induced errors provide evidence 
about processes and representations in speech execution 

B。 Language Understanding 
1。 Resolving ambiguity involves detangling two types of ambiguity 
a) Structural ambiguity involves determining which of two (or 
more) meanings the structure of a sentence implies; and is 
dependent largely on prior context for resolution 

b) Lexical ambiguity involves determining which of the various 
meanings of a word may be appropriate in this context。 To 
eliminate this ambiguity is referred to as “disambiguating” 
the word。 Two models are proposed for disambiguation。 

(i) The constant order model states that; regardless of the 
context preceding the use of a word; its meanings are 
always tested in constant order; from most to least 
likely 
(ii) The reordering by context model states that the 
context that precedes a word can change the order in 
which one tests its multiple definitions 
(iii) Context actively affects listener’s consideration of the 
meanings of ambiguous words 
2。 Products of Understanding 
146 


CHAPTER 9: COGNITIVE PROCESSES 

a) Research suggests that meaning representations that follow 

understanding of utterances or texts begin with basic units 
called propositions。 Propositions are the main ideas of 
utterances。 

b) Listeners often fill gaps in information with inferences。 
Inferences are logical assumptions made possible by 
information in memory。 

C。 Language; Thought; and Culture 
1。 The Sapir…Whorf hypothesis suggests that differences in language create 
differences in thought。 The hypothesis contains two tenets: 
a) Linguistic Relativity suggests that structural differences 
between languages will generally be paralleled by 
nonlinguistic cognitive differences in the native speakers of 
the two languages 

b) Linguistic Determinism suggests that the structure of a 
language strongly influences or fully determines the way its 
native speakers perceive and reason about the world 

2。 Research does not support the strong claim of linguistic determinism 
that language is destiny; although it does support the weaker claim 
that language differences yield parallel cognitive differences 
III。 Visual Cognition 
A。 Using Visual Representations 
1。 Reaction time required for mental manipulation of rotated visual 
images was in direct proportion to the degree that the image had been 
rotated 
2。 Consistency of reaction time suggested that the process of mental 
rotation was very similar to the process of physical rotation of objects 
3。 People scan visual images as if they were scanning real objects 
B。 bining Verbal and Visual Representations 
1。 Spatial mental models are often formed to capture properties of real and 
imagined spatial experiences 
2。 In reading descriptive passages; people often form a spatial mental 
model to keep track of the whereabouts of characters 
3。 When people think about the world around them; they almost always 
bine visual and verbal representations of information 
IV。 Problem Solving and Reasoning 
A。 Both require bination of current information with information stored in memory to 
work toward a particular goal; a conclusion or a solution 
B。 Problem solving 
147 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

1。 The formal definition of a problem space; of how a problem is defined in 
real life; captures three elements: 
a) An initial state—the inplete information or unsatisfactory 
conditions with which you start 

b) A goal state—the set of information or state of the world you 
hope to achieve 

c) A set of operations—the steps you may take to move from the 
initial state to the goal state 

2。 Well…defined problems have the initial state; the goal state; and the 
operations all clearly specified 
3。 An ill…defined problem exists when the initial state; the goal state; 
and/or the operations may be unclear and vaguely specified 
4。 Algorithms are step…by…step procedures that always provide the right 
answer to a particular type of problem 
5。 Heuristics are strategies or “rules of thumb” that problem solvers often 
use when algorithms are not available 
6。 Think…aloud protocols ask participants to verbalize their ongoing 
thoughts 
7。 Problem solving can be improved by planning the series of operations 
that it will take to solve the problem。 This assures that the small steps 
needed to solve the problem do not overwhelm processing resources。 
a) Finding a way to represent a problem so that each operation is 
possible; given processing resources 

b) Practicing each of the ponents of the solution so that; over 
time; those ponents require fewer resources 

8。 Functional Fixedness is a mental block that adversely affects problem 
solving by inhibiting the perception of a new function for an object 
C。 Deductive Reasoning 
1。 Deductive reasoning is a form of thinking in which one draws a logical 
conclusion from two or more statements or premises 
2。 Requires reformulation of an interchange to fit the structure of a 
syllogism; thus defining the logical relationships between statements 
that will lead to valid conclusions 
3。 Involves the correct application of logical rules; and is impacted by 
both the specific knowledge possessed about the world and the 
representational sources that can be brought to bear on a reasoning 
problem。 
a) What is invalid in logic; however; is not necessarily untrue in 
real life; and information that is accepted as true can result in 
biased beliefs: 

b) In the belief…bias effect; people tend to judge as valid those 
conclusions for which they can construct a reasonable real…
world model and as invalid those for which they cannot 

148 


CHAPTER 9: COGNITIVE PROCESSES 

c) Experience improves the individual’s reasoning ability; such 
that when a posed problem is familiar in real life; you can use 
a pragmatic reasoning schema 

d) Mental models may be used when pragmatic reasoning 
schemas are not available。 Mental models reproduce the 
details of a situation as accurately as possible; given the 
limitations of working memory。 Mental models work best 
when a unique model of the world can be created 

D。 Inductive Reasoning 
1。 Inductive reasoning is a form of reasoning that uses available evidence 
to generate likely; but not certain; conclusions 
2。 Allows access to tried…and…true methods that speed current problem 
solving 
a) Analogical problem solving permits establishment of an analogy 
between features of the current situation and those of previous 
situations 

b) Past experience permits generalization of a solution from an 
earlier problem to a new problem 

c) Caution must be employed with inductive reasoning; in that 
the belief that a solution has worked previously may impair 
problem solving in the current situation 

d) Mental sets a

返回目录 上一页 下一页 回到顶部 0 0

你可能喜欢的