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addiction。 

Trance Forming Yourself (1986)。 TFU; 40 minutes 

Visual and audio illustrations of self…hypnosis techniques; including deep relaxation; pendulum 
techniques; and daydreaming are illustrated in this informative film。 

Walking Through the Fear: Women and Substance Abuse (1992)。 FFHS; 28 minutes 

104 


CHAPTER 6: MIND; CONSCIOUSNESS; AND ALTERED STATES 

Drug and alcohol abuses continue to increase among women; and women often do not seek 
appropriate help。 This program addresses the many reasons why。 

What Time Is Your Body? (1981)。 TFL; 50 minutes 

Features circadian rhythms; the regular bodily cycles that occur on a roughly 24…hour cycle。 Our 
body temperature rises as morning approaches; peaks during the day; and descends before sleep。 
The film suggests that our internal biological clock is as important as external stimuli to our 
experiences and behavior。 The film includes footage on isolation experiments conducted to assess 
specific circadian rhythms。 In a cave with no clock; one man unwittingly made his day longer than 
24 hours and consistently stuck to it for a month。 A young woman isolated in a room of perpetual 
daylight later discovered that she was living a day slightly shorter than 24 hours。 Although this 
film is old; the topic discussed has not changed。 

105 


CHAPTER 7 
Learning and Behavior Analysis 

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 

On pletion of this chapter; students should be able to: 

1。 Describe the process of classical conditioning 
2。 Explain the significance of temporal contiguity to the processes of conditioning and 
learning 
3。 Detail the phenomena associated with conditioning; including extinction; stimulus 
generalization; discrimination; and spontaneous recovery 
4。 Describe the process of operant conditioning 
5。 Identify the significance of reinforcement contingency to behavioral response and the 
resulting environmental changes 
6。 Understand the distinction between the concepts of reinforcement and punishment 
7。 Explain the differences in primary reinforcers and conditional reinforcers 
8。 Describe the importance of reinforcement schedules; including characteristics of available 
schedules 
9。 municate significance of shaping and chaining to the process of operant conditioning 
CHAPTER OUTLINE 

I。 The Study of Learning 
A。 What Is Learning? 
1。 Learning is a process based on experience that results in a relatively 
consistent change in behavior or behavior potential 
a) A Change in Behavior or Behavior Potential 

(i) Learning is often apparent from improvements in 
performance 
(ii) But what has been learned is not always evident in 
performance; which leads to the learning…performance 
distinction–the difference between what has been learned 
and what is expressed or performed in overt behavior 
b) A Relatively Consistent Change 

(i) To qualify as learned; behavior must be performed 
consistently over time。 For instance; if you have learned to 
ride a bike; you are unlikely to forget how to ride a bike。 
c) A Process Based on Experience 

(i) Learning only happens through experience; through 
interacting with the environment 
106 


CHAPTER 7: LEARNING AND BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 

B。 Behaviorism and Behavior Analysis 
1。 A recurring question of this chapter is how much of behavior is 
learned; and how much of it is innate? 
2。 One possible answer to this question is Radical Behaviorism; which 
suggests that all behavior can be understood in terms of an organism’s 
inherited characteristics and simple learned behavior 
a) John Watson and B。 F。 Skinner argued that feelings; imagining 

do not cause behavior; but rather are caused by environmental 
stimuli。 They are the two most influential proponents of 
behaviorism; which maintains that psychology should focus 
on observable behavior。 

b) Behaviorism; which will be covered more fully later; led to the 
development of behavior analysis; the area of psychology that 
focuses on environmental determinants of behavior 

c) Behaviorists and behavior analysts often assume that 
learning is conserved across species; that learning is similar in 
all animal species。 Because of this assumption; animals are 
often used in behaviorist research。 

II。Classical Conditioning: Learning Predictable Signals 
A。 Pavlov’s Surprising Observation 
1。 First described by Ivan Pavlov; classical conditioning is a basic form of 
learning in which one stimulus predicts the occurrence of another 
event。 Organisms learn to associate one stimulus with the other。 

a) Reflexes; unlearned responses such as salivation; pupil 
contraction; knee jerks; or eye blinks; are at the core of 
classical conditioning 

b) An Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) is any stimulus that 
naturally elicits a reflexive behavior; such as salivating 

c) An Unconditioned Response (UCR) is the behavior; such as 
salivating; that is elicited by the UCS 

d) A Neutral Stimulus is a stimulus that has no intrinsic meaning 

to the organism。 When associated with the UCS; the Neutral 
Stimulus can bee a Conditioned Stimulus (CS)–a previously 
neutral stimulus that es to elicit a conditioned response。 

e) A Conditioned Stimulus; after being paired with the UCS; 
acquires the power to elicit the UCR。 When the UCR is elicited 
by the CS; however; it is called the Conditioned Response 
(CR)。 

f) A Conditioned Response is produced by the presentation of the 
CS 

107 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

g) In summary; nature provides the association between the 
Unconditioned Stimulus and the Unconditioned Response。 By 
repeatedly pairing the Conditioned Stimulus with the 
Unconditioned Stimulus; the Conditioned Stimulus begins to elicit 
a Conditioned Response。 

B。 Processes of Conditioning 
1。 Acquisition is the process by which the CR is first elicited by the CS and 
by which elicitation gradually increases in frequency over repeated 
trials 
2。 Timing is critical in classical conditioning。 The UCS and the CS must 
be presented close enough together so that they are perceived to be 
associated。 Four types of temporal patterns are used in research。 They 
are: 
a) Delayed Conditioning; in which the CS es prior to and 
stays on at least until the UCS is presented。 Usually the most 
effective conditioning paradigm。 The optimal time interval 
between the UCS and the CS varies depending on the nature 
of the CS and the CR。 

b) Trace Conditioning; in which the CS is turned off before the 
UCS is presented。 

c) Simultaneous Conditioning; in which the CS and the UCS are 
presented at the same time。 Conditioning is generally poor 
with this paradigm。 

d) Backward Conditioning; in which the CS is presented after the 
UCS。 Conditioning is generally very poor with this paradigm。 

3。 Extinction is said to have occurred when the CR no longer appears in 
the presence of the CS 
4。 Spontaneous Recovery; reappearance of a weak CR when the CS is 
presented again after extinction; without renewed pairing with the 
UCS 
5。 If the UCS and the CS are again paired after extinction; the UCS and 
the CS association will be learned more quickly。 The difference in the 
time taken to learn the association initially and to relearn the 
association after extinction is called Savings。 

6。 Stimulus Generalization is the extension of elicitation of the CR to 
stimuli similar to the CS。 If the CS is a tone; a similar tone may produce 
the CR。 
7。 Stimulus Discrimination is the process by which an organism learns to 
respond differently to stimuli that are distinct from but similar to the 
CS 
C。 Focus on Acquisition 
1。 Robert Rescorla’s work demonstrated that contingency; not just 
contiguity; is necessary for classical conditioning to occur 
2。 In addition to contingency; the CS must reliably predict the UCS 
108 


CHAPTER 7: LEARNING AND BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 

3。 The informativeness of the CS is also crucial to classical conditioning 
4。 Blocking is the ability of the first CS to reduce the informativeness of 
the second CS because of the organism’s previous experience 
5。 A Neutral Stimulus will only bee a Conditioned Stimulus if it is 
both appropriately contingent and informative 
D。 Applications of Classical Conditioning 
1。 Classical conditioning does not involve conscious thought; but does 
involve emotions and preferences 
2。 Fear conditioning involves the pairing of a neutral stimulus with a fear…
provoking object。 Fear conditioning is a powerful form of classical 
conditioning; is resistant to extinction; and can occur after only one 
pairing of the CS and the UCS。 
3。 Learning to Be a Drug Addict 
a) If a drug addict does drugs in the same ritualistic manner in 
the same environment consistently; the ritualistic manner and 
the environment themselves may bee CS。 They e to 
predict the occurrence of the UCS; the drug; and they warn the 
body that the drug is about to be done。 The body can then 
prepare a pensatory response that allows the body; in an 
effort to maintain homeostasis; to counteract partially the 
impact of the drug。 

b) Because of this pensatory response; if the drug is taken in 
the same manner and in t

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