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system¡¡is¡¡the¡¡most¡¡resistant¡¡to¡¡damage¡¡of¡¡all¡¡sensory¡¡systems£»¡¡as¡¡taste¡¡
receptors¡¡are¡¡replaced¡¡every¡¡few¡¡days£»¡¡even¡¡more¡¡often¡¡than¡¡smell¡¡
receptors¡¡
C¡£¡¡Touch¡¡and¡¡Skin¡¡Senses¡¡
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PSYCHOLOGY¡¡AND¡¡LIFE¡¡

1¡£¡¡Cutaneous¡¡senses¡¡are¡¡sensations¡¡produced¡¡by¡¡the¡¡skin£»¡¡such¡¡as¡¡pressure£»¡¡
cold£»¡¡and¡¡warmth¡£¡¡Because¡¡the¡¡skin¡¡responds¡¡to¡¡so¡¡many¡¡types¡¡of¡¡
stimuli£»¡¡many¡¡different¡¡types¡¡of¡¡receptors¡¡are¡¡located¡¡near¡¡the¡¡surface¡¡of¡¡
the¡¡skin¡£¡¡
2¡£¡¡Meissner¡¡corpuscles¡¡respond¡¡best¡¡when¡¡something¡¡rubs¡¡against¡¡the¡¡skin¡¡
3¡£¡¡Merkel¡¡disks¡¡are¡¡most¡¡active¡¡when¡¡a¡¡small¡¡object¡¡exerts¡¡steady¡¡pressure¡¡
on¡¡the¡¡skin¡¡
4¡£¡¡The¡¡skin¡¡has¡¡separate¡¡receptors¡¡for¡¡hot¡¡and¡¡cold¡¡
5¡£¡¡Erogenous¡¡zones¡¡are¡¡areas¡¡of¡¡the¡¡skin¡¡that¡¡give¡¡rise¡¡to¡¡erotic£»¡¡sexual¡¡
sensations¡¡
D¡£¡¡The¡¡Vestibular¡¡and¡¡Kinesthetic¡¡Senses¡¡
1¡£¡¡Vestibular¡¡sense¡¡tells¡¡how¡¡the¡¡body¡¡is¡¡oriented¡¡in¡¡the¡¡world¡¡with¡¡respect¡¡to¡¡
gravity¡¡through¡¡tiny¡¡hairs¡¡in¡¡fluid¡­filled¡¡sacs¡¡and¡¡canals¡¡in¡¡the¡¡inner¡¡ear¡¡
a£©¡¡The¡¡saccule¡¡and¡¡utricle¡¡detect¡¡acceleration¡¡and¡¡deceleration¡¡

b£©¡¡The¡¡semicircular¡¡canals¡¡are¡¡at¡¡right¡¡angles¡¡to¡¡each¡¡other¡¡and¡¡can¡¡
thus¡¡detect¡¡movement¡¡in¡¡any¡¡direction¡¡

c£©¡¡Motion¡¡sickness¡¡occurs¡¡when¡¡information¡¡from¡¡the¡¡visual¡¡system¡¡
conflicts¡¡with¡¡information¡¡from¡¡the¡¡vestibular¡¡system¡¡

2¡£¡¡The¡¡kinesthetic¡¡sense¡¡provides¡¡constant¡¡sensory¡¡feedback¡¡about¡¡what¡¡the¡¡
body¡¡is¡¡doing¡¡during¡¡motor¡¡activities¡£¡¡There¡¡are¡¡two¡¡sources¡¡of¡¡
kinesthetic¡¡information£º¡¡receptors¡¡in¡¡the¡¡joints¡¡and¡¡receptors¡¡in¡¡muscles¡¡
and¡¡tendons¡¡
a£©¡¡Receptors¡¡in¡¡the¡¡joints¡¡respond¡¡to¡¡pressures¡¡that¡¡acpany¡¡
different¡¡positions¡¡of¡¡the¡¡limbs¡¡and¡¡to¡¡pressure¡¡changes¡¡that¡¡
acpany¡¡movements¡¡

b£©¡¡Receptors¡¡in¡¡the¡¡muscles¡¡and¡¡tendons¡¡respond¡¡to¡¡changes¡¡in¡¡
tension¡¡that¡¡acpany¡¡muscle¡¡shortening¡¡and¡¡lengthening¡¡

E¡£¡¡Pain¡¡
1¡£¡¡Pain¡¡is¡¡the¡¡body¡¯s¡¡response¡¡to¡¡noxious¡¡stimuli¡¡that¡¡are¡¡intense¡¡enough¡¡to¡¡
cause¡¡damage¡¡or¡¡threaten¡¡to¡¡do¡¡so¡£¡¡Pain¡¡is¡¡critical¡¡to¡¡survival¡£¡¡People¡¡
with¡¡insensitivity¡¡to¡¡pain¡¡often¡¡bee¡¡scarred¡¡and¡¡their¡¡limbs¡¡deformed¡¡
from¡¡injuries¡¡that¡¡could¡¡have¡¡been¡¡prevented¡¡had¡¡they¡¡been¡¡sensitive¡¡to¡¡
pain¡£¡¡
2¡£¡¡Pain¡¡mechanisms¡¡
a£©¡¡Nociceptive¡¡pain¡¡is¡¡the¡¡negative¡¡feeling¡¡induced¡¡by¡¡a¡¡noxious¡¡
external¡¡stimulus£»¡¡such¡¡as¡¡a¡¡hot¡¡stove¡¡

b£©¡¡Neuropathic¡¡pain¡¡is¡¡caused¡¡by¡¡the¡¡abnormal¡¡functioning¡¡or¡¡over¡¡
activity¡¡of¡¡nerves¡¡

60¡¡


CHAPTER¡¡4£º¡¡SENSATION¡¡

c£©¡¡The¡¡network¡¡of¡¡pain¡¡receptors¡¡is¡¡a¡¡fine¡¡mesh¡¡that¡¡covers¡¡the¡¡entire¡¡
body¡£¡¡Some¡¡receptors¡¡respond¡¡only¡¡to¡¡temperature£»¡¡while¡¡others¡¡
respond¡¡to¡¡chemical¡¡or¡¡mechanical¡¡stimuli¡£¡¡

d£©¡¡Peripheral¡¡nerve¡¡fibers¡¡transmit¡¡signals¡¡to¡¡the¡¡central¡¡nervous¡¡
system¡¡in¡¡two¡¡ways£º¡¡

i£©¡¡Fast¡­conducting£»¡¡myelinated¡¡nerves¡¡

ii£©¡¡Slower£»¡¡smaller£»¡¡nonmyelinated¡¡nerves¡¡

e£©¡¡Pain¡¡impulses¡¡start¡¡at¡¡the¡¡spinal¡¡cord£»¡¡are¡¡relayed¡¡to¡¡the¡¡thalamus£»¡¡
and¡¡then¡¡to¡¡the¡¡cerebral¡¡cortex¡¡

3¡£¡¡The¡¡Psychology¡¡of¡¡Pain¡¡
a£©¡¡Emotional¡¡responses£»¡¡context¡¡factors£»¡¡and¡¡subjective¡¡interpretation¡¡
can¡¡be¡¡as¡¡important¡¡as¡¡actual¡¡physical¡¡stimuli¡¡in¡¡determining¡¡how¡¡
much¡¡pain¡¡is¡¡experienced¡¡

b£©¡¡Phantom¡¡limb¡¡phenomenon¡¡is¡¡the¡¡experience¡¡of¡¡sensation¡¡or¡¡pain¡¡
in¡¡a¡¡limb¡¡that¡¡is¡¡no¡¡longer¡¡there¡£¡¡It¡¡occurs¡¡in¡¡up¡¡to¡¡10¡¡percent¡¡of¡¡
amputees¡£¡¡

c£©¡¡Pain¡¡is¡¡partly¡¡a¡¡psychological¡¡response¡¡and£»¡¡thus£»¡¡can¡¡be¡¡
influenced¡¡by¡¡psychological¡¡processes£»¡¡such¡¡as¡¡hypnosis£»¡¡deep¡¡
relaxation£»¡¡and¡¡thought¡¡distraction¡£¡¡The¡¡Lamaze¡¡preparation¡¡for¡¡
childbirth¡¡is¡¡an¡¡excellent¡¡example¡¡of¡¡the¡¡psychological¡¡control¡¡of¡¡
pain¡£¡¡

d£©¡¡The¡¡Gate¡­Control¡¡Theory¡¡of¡¡pain£»¡¡proposed¡¡by¡¡Ronald¡¡Melzack£»¡¡
suggests¡¡that¡¡cells¡¡in¡¡the¡¡spinal¡¡cord¡¡act¡¡as¡¡neurological¡¡gates£»¡¡
interrupting¡¡and¡¡blocking¡¡some¡¡pain¡¡signals¡¡and¡¡letting¡¡others¡¡
through¡¡to¡¡the¡¡brain¡£¡¡The¡¡brain¡¡and¡¡receptors¡¡in¡¡the¡¡skin¡¡send¡¡
messages¡¡to¡¡the¡¡spinal¡¡cord¡¡to¡¡open¡¡or¡¡close¡¡the¡¡gates¡£¡¡

e£©¡¡In¡¡recent¡¡years¡¡Melzack¡¡proposed¡¡an¡¡updated¡¡neuromatrix¡¡theory¡¡
of¡¡pain¡¡which¡¡incorporates¡¡the¡¡reality¡¡that¡¡people¡¡often¡¡experience¡¡
pain¡¡with¡¡little¡¡or¡¡no¡¡physical¡¡cause¡£¡¡

DISCUSSION¡¡QUESTIONS¡¡

1¡£¡¡What¡¡other¡¡senses¡¡might¡¡there¡¡be¡¡that¡¡humans¡¡lack£¿¡¡How¡¡would¡¡we¡¡know¡¡that¡¡they¡¡
existed£¿¡¡How¡¡might¡¡humans¡¡develop¡¡devices£»¡¡such¡¡as¡¡binoculars£»¡¡night¡­vision¡¡scopes£»¡¡and¡¡
hearing¡¡aids£»¡¡which¡¡allow¡¡us¡¡to¡¡experience¡¡these¡¡senses£¿¡¡
2¡£¡¡How¡¡similar¡¡are¡¡sensory¡¡experiences¡¡between¡¡people£¿¡¡Do¡¡all¡¡individuals¡¡experience¡¡the¡¡
color¡¡¡°blue¡±¡¡the¡¡same£¿¡¡How¡¡would¡¡we¡¡know¡¡if¡¡we¡¡did¡¡not£»¡¡and¡¡would¡¡it¡¡matter£¿¡¡
3¡£¡¡Have¡¡the¡¡class¡¡think¡¡of¡¡real¡­life¡¡examples¡¡of¡¡dichotic¡¡listening¡£¡¡Is¡¡this¡¡a¡¡phenomenon¡¡with¡¡
which¡¡they¡¡are¡¡familiar¡¡and¡¡of¡¡which¡¡they¡¡have¡¡a¡¡basic¡¡understanding£¿¡¡
4¡£¡¡Discuss¡¡attention¡¡from¡¡the¡¡perspectives¡¡of¡¡its¡¡being¡¡goal¡­directed¡¡or¡¡stimulus¡­driven¡¡
perception¡£¡¡Generally¡¡speaking£»¡¡do¡¡more¡¡students¡¡seem¡¡to¡¡be¡¡goal¡­directed¡¡attendees¡¡or¡¡
61¡¡


PSYCHOLOGY¡¡AND¡¡LIFE¡¡

stimulus¡­driven¡¡perceivers£¿¡¡What¡¡might¡¡contribute¡¡to¡¡this¡¡phenomenon£¿¡¡

5¡£¡¡Discuss¡¡the¡¡premises¡¡of¡¡Gestalt¡¡psychology¡¡with¡¡the¡¡class¡£¡¡Point¡¡out¡¡that¡¡Kurt¡¡Lewin¡¯s¡¡
Field¡¡Theory¡¡was¡¡a¡¡result¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Gestalt¡¡movement¡£¡¡What¡¡other¡¡theoretical¡¡constructions¡¡
might¡¡have¡¡a¡¡relationship¡¡to¡¡the¡¡Gestalt¡¡movement£¿¡¡
6¡£¡¡Discuss¡¡the¡¡wide¡¡variance¡¡that¡¡exists¡¡among¡¡people¡¡in¡¡their¡¡sensitivity¡¡to¡¡pain¡£¡¡The¡¡
sensation¡¡of¡¡pain¡¡is¡¡a¡¡plex¡¡process¡¡involving¡¡multiple¡¡nerve¡¡pathways¡£¡¡But¡¡to¡¡some¡¡
degree£»¡¡responses¡¡to¡¡pain¡¡might¡¡be¡¡learned¡£¡¡In¡¡the¡¡19th¡¡century£»¡¡writers¡¡often¡¡noted¡¡that¡¡
Native¡¡Americans¡¡were¡¡remarkably¡¡stoic¡¡in¡¡the¡¡face¡¡of¡¡what¡¡Whites¡¡considered¡¡
overwhelming¡¡pain¡£¡¡Other¡¡researchers¡¡have¡¡also¡¡noted¡¡cultural¡¡differences¡¡in¡¡pain¡¡
threshold¡£¡¡While¡¡individual¡¡differences¡¡can¡¡easily¡¡be¡¡chalked¡¡up¡¡to¡¡differences¡¡in¡¡biological¡¡
makeup£»¡¡cultural¡¡differences¡¡are¡¡more¡¡difficult¡¡to¡¡pass¡¡off¡¡as¡¡exclusively¡¡biological¡¡in¡¡
origin¡£¡¡
7¡£¡¡Could¡¡it¡¡be¡¡that¡¡to¡¡some¡¡degree¡¡we¡¡learn¡¡how¡¡to¡¡respond¡¡to¡¡pain¡¡messages¡¡based¡¡on¡¡factors¡¡
such¡¡as¡¡how¡¡much¡¡attention¡¡we¡¡receive¡¡for¡¡crying¡¡in¡¡response¡¡to¡¡pain¡¡when¡¡we¡¡are¡¡infants£¿¡¡
Many¡¡parents¡¡of¡¡young¡¡children¡¡have¡¡remarked¡¡about¡¡incidents¡¡where¡¡their¡¡child¡¡has¡¡
fallen£»¡¡and¡¡then¡¡looked¡¡up¡¡at¡¡the¡¡parents¡¡as¡¡if¡¡asking¡¡¡°How¡¡should¡¡I¡¡react£¿¡±¡¡If¡¡the¡¡parents¡¡
start¡¡to¡¡make¡¡a¡¡big¡¡fuss¡¡over¡¡the¡¡fall£»¡¡the¡¡child¡¡immediately¡¡starts¡¡to¡¡cry¡£¡¡If¡¡the¡¡parents¡¡smile¡¡
and¡¡stay¡¡calm£»¡¡the¡¡child¡¡ignores¡¡the¡¡fall¡¡and¡¡returns¡¡to¡¡playing¡£¡¡If¡¡a¡¡parent¡¡constantly¡¡
overreacts¡¡to¡¡small¡¡falls£»¡¡and¡¡lavishes¡¡attention¡¡on¡¡a¡¡child¡¡every¡¡time¡¡he¡¡or¡¡she¡¡cries£»¡¡could¡¡
they¡¡be¡¡reinforcing¡¡a¡¡tendency¡¡to¡¡react¡¡negatively¡¡to¡¡any¡¡pain¡¡and¡¡use¡¡overblown¡¡reactions¡¡
to¡¡pain¡¡as¡¡a¡¡means¡¡of¡¡getting¡¡attention£¿¡¡Could¡¡this¡¡influence¡¡those¡¡children¡¡to¡¡be¡¡more¡¡
sensitive¡¡to¡¡any¡¡painful¡¡stimuli¡¡in¡¡that¡¡they¡¡learn¡¡to¡¡attend¡¡more¡¡to¡¡pain¡¡messages¡¡and¡¡
subsequently¡¡notice¡¡them¡¡more£¿¡¡Ask¡¡students¡¡these¡¡questions¡¡to¡¡see¡¡what¡¡they¡¡think¡£¡¡
8¡£¡¡Many¡¡people¡¡believe¡¡the¡¡myth¡¡that¡¡when¡¡people¡¡lose¡¡one¡¡of¡¡their¡¡physical¡¡senses£»¡¡their¡¡
other¡¡senses¡¡bee¡¡more¡¡sensitive¡¡to¡¡pensate¡¡for¡¡the¡¡missing¡¡sense¡£¡¡The¡¡idea¡¡that¡¡
blind¡¡people¡¡have¡¡hearing¡¡that¡¡is¡¡more¡¡acute¡¡than¡¡others¡¡has¡¡been¡¡around¡¡for¡¡ages¡£¡¡Ask¡¡
students¡¡if¡¡they¡¡have¡¡heard¡¡this¡¡and¡¡if¡¡they¡¡believe¡¡it¡£¡¡This¡¡myth¡¡is¡¡technically¡¡wrong¡¡in¡¡that¡¡
there¡¡is¡¡no¡¡actual¡¡increase¡¡in¡¡physical¡¡ability¡¡to¡¡detect¡¡sound¡¡when¡¡someone¡¡goes¡¡blind¡£¡¡But¡¡
blind¡¡people¡¡may¡¡learn¡¡to¡¡pay¡¡more¡¡attention¡¡to¡¡subtle¡¡differences¡¡in¡¡sound¡¡than¡¡do¡¡sighted¡¡
people£»¡¡therefore¡¡making¡¡it¡¡seem¡¡as¡¡if¡¡their¡¡hearing¡¡has¡¡increased¡¡in¡¡its¡¡sensitivity¡£¡¡
Similarly£»¡¡losing¡¡one¡¯s¡¡hearing¡¡does¡¡not¡¡increase¡¡one¡¯s¡¡visual¡¡acuity£»¡¡but¡¡deaf¡¡people¡¡often¡¡
pay¡¡more¡¡attention¡¡to¡¡certain¡¡visual¡¡cues¡¡than¡¡do¡¡those¡¡who¡¡can¡¡hear£»¡¡allowing¡¡them¡¡to¡¡
learn¡¡more¡¡from¡¡those¡¡cues¡£¡¡
9¡£¡¡Usually¡¡these¡¡myths¡¡focus¡¡around¡¡hearing¡¡and¡¡sight¡£¡¡If¡¡the¡¡myths¡¡were¡¡true£»¡¡what¡¡sense¡¡
might¡¡bee¡¡more¡¡acute¡¡if¡¡the¡¡sense¡¡of¡¡taste¡¡is¡¡lost£¿¡¡Smell£¿¡¡Taste£¿¡¡
10¡£¡¡What¡¡sense¡¡would¡¡bee¡¡more¡¡acute¡¡if¡¡the¡¡sense¡¡of¡¡touch¡¡was¡¡lost£¿¡¡Again£»¡¡people¡¡can¡¡
sometimes¡¡pensate¡¡for¡¡the¡¡loss¡¡of¡¡a¡¡sense¡¡in¡¡a¡¡variety¡¡of¡¡ways£»¡¡but¡¡there¡¡is¡¡no¡¡
pensatory¡¡increase¡¡in¡¡physical¡¡ability¡¡in¡¡the¡¡remaining¡¡senses¡£¡¡
SUPPLEMENTAL¡¡LECTURE¡¡MATERIAL¡¡

Sensation¡¡and¡¡Perception¡¡

Why¡¡do¡¡we¡¡study¡¡sensation¡¡and¡¡perception£¿¡¡Primarily¡¡because¡¡it¡¡is¡¡through¡¡the¡¡sensory¡¡systems¡¡
that¡¡we¡¡make¡¡and¡¡maintain¡¡our¡¡contact¡¡with¡¡the¡¡environment¡£¡¡What¡¡are¡¡some¡¡of¡¡the¡¡reasons¡¡that¡¡
figure¡¡into¡¡this¡¡contact¡¡with¡¡the¡¡environment£¿¡¡There¡¡are¡¡many¡¡reasons£»¡¡but¡¡some¡¡of¡¡the¡¡more¡¡
pertinent¡¡follow¡£¡¡

62¡¡


CHAPTER¡¡4£º¡¡SENSATION¡¡

1¡£¡¡For¡¡purposes¡¡of¡¡munication¡¡to¡¡and¡¡from¡¡the¡¡brain£»¡¡between¡¡our¡¡internal¡¡and¡¡external¡¡
environments¡£¡¡
2¡£¡¡For¡¡organizational¡¡and¡¡functional¡¡principles¡¡that¡¡are¡¡applicable¡¡across¡¡the¡¡various¡¡sensory¡¡
and¡¡perceptual¡¡systems¡£¡¡
3¡£¡¡For¡¡prehension¡¡of¡¡anatomical¡¡structure¡¡at¡¡a¡¡physiological¡¡level¡£¡¡
4¡£¡¡For¡¡assistance¡¡with¡¡deficits¡¡in¡¡the¡¡various¡¡systems£»¡¡such¡¡as¡¡abnormalities£»¡¡deficiencies£»¡¡
prosthetics£»¡¡and¡¡so¡¡on¡£¡¡This¡¡is¡¡especially¡¡important¡¡in¡¡vision¡¡and¡¡audition£»¡¡in¡¡that¡¡
¡°normal¡±¡¡individuals¡¡get¡¡80¡¡percent¡¡of¡¡their¡¡sensory¡¡input¡¡through¡¡vision¡¡and¡¡15¡ª18¡¡
percent¡¡through¡¡audition¡£¡¡The¡¡remaining¡¡2¡ª5¡¡percent¡¡is¡¡distributed¡¡across¡¡the¡¡other¡¡
various¡¡systems¡£¡¡
5¡£¡¡Finally£»¡¡for¡¡philosophical¡¡reasons£»¡¡to¡¡what¡¡extent¡¡is¡¡our¡¡world¡¡experience¡¡predicated¡¡on¡¡
sensation¡¡and¡¡perception£¿¡¡On¡¡what¡¡else¡¡could¡¡it¡¡be¡¡predicated£¿¡¡
Other¡¡principles¡¡and¡¡properties¡¡that¡¡are¡¡characteristic¡¡of¡¡all¡¡sensory¡¡systems¡¡include¡¡the¡¡following£º¡¡

1¡£¡¡Limit

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