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people often make special efforts to reduce cognitive inconsistencies。 His theory of cognitive 
dissonance; proposed in 1957; was of immense influence in social psychology; inspiring volumes 
of research during the 1950s and 1960s。 

348 


CHAPTER 17: SOCIAL PROCESSES AND RELATIONSHIPS 

Kurt Lewin (1890—1947) 

Kurt Lewin grew up in prewar Germany in an era that produced a number of prominent and 
revolutionary psychologists。 Best known for his field theory of psychology; which attempts to 
explain human behavior in terms of the interrelations of environmental and psychological 
elements acting on the individual; Lewin has contributed a body of thought that has had a great 
impact on such disciplines as social psychology; industrial psychology; and personality theory。 

Lewin was born in a small village in the Prussian province of Posen in 1890。 His father owned a 
large general store there and maintained his family in relative fort。 In order to expand his 
business; Herr Lewin moved his wife and four children to Berlin in 1905; where Kurt pleted 
his secondary education。 Lewin entered the University of Freiburg; intent on studying medicine; 
but; within a short time; he discovered that the field held little interest for him。 He underwent a 
period of vacillation; during which he struggled to decide the direction in which he should 
channel his considerable energies。 His search led him first to transfer to the University of Munich 
and then back to Berlin; where he eventually took his basic degree in psychology and embarked 
on a course of graduate study in that discipline。 At this time; Lewin came under the tutelage of 
Professor Carl Stumpf; a prominent experimental psychologist; who advised and encouraged 
him in his research。 

Just as he pleted his requirements for a Ph。D。 in 1914; Lewin was conscripted into the 
German army as an infantryman。 He served in the military for the next four years; so 
distinguishing himself that he rose from private to lieutenant in a short time。 At the close of the 
war; Lewin returned to the University of Berlin as both instructor and research assistant in the 
Psychological Institute。 He rapidly gained a reputation as a superb lecturer in the classroom and 
an excellent supervisor in the laboratory。 

Of particular importance to the development of Lewin’s thought at this time was the alliance he 
formed with two of his colleagues at the university; Max Wertheimer and Wolfgang Kohler。 
These two had participated in the founding of Gestalt psychology and; while Lewin never 
became a Gestalt psychologist; the connection between that approach and Lewin’s field theory 
approach is immediately apparent。 Eventually Lewin was appointed full professor at the 
university; where he and his graduate students generated numerous insightful research papers。 

As Lewin’s prominence in the German academic world continued to grow; so too did the power 
of the Nazi Party。 Lewin was spending a year as visiting professor at Stanford University when it 
became apparent that Hitler’s control of Germany was inevitable。 He hurriedly returned to 
Germany to settle his affairs and then reentered the United States; where he lived until his death。 

His career in America was varied and productive。 He taught child psychology at Cornell 
University from 1933 to 1935; then accepted an appointment to the State University of Iowa as 
professor of psychology in the Child Welfare Station。 Lewin’s last academic position was as 
professor and director of the Research Center for Group Dynamics at the Massachusetts Institute 
of Technology。 Concurrently; he acted as director of the mission of Interrelations of the 
American Jewish Congress; which engaged in research on munity problems。 While the 
influence of Lewin’s work has spread widely over the last three decades; the work in group 
dynamics carried on by the Research Center for Group Dynamics at the University of Michigan 
most closely follows the theories Lewin proposed。 

349 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

TIMELINE 

Year Event 
1908 William McDougall published An Introduction to Social Psychology; one of the 
earliest books on the subject。 
19141918 
World War I was fought。 
1924 Floyd Allport published Social Psychology; the first college text for this area of 
psychology。 
1929 The Great Depression began in America。 
1936 Muzafer Sherif conducted his important autokinetic studies involving social 
influence。 
19391945 
World War II was fought。 
1944 Kurt Lewin established the Research Center for Group Dynamics at MIT。 
19501953 
The Korean War was fought。 
1957 Leon Festinger published the theory of cognitive dissonance。 
1964 The stabbing of Kitty Genovese in Queens; New York; resulted in public 
outrage at the perceived apathy of the bystanders。 
1967 Harold Kelley’s analysis started researchers working on attributional 
analyses of social behavior。 
1968 Bibb Latane and John Darley published their research on the bystander 
effect。 
1969 The first human landing on the moon occurred。 
1971 Philip Zimbardo; Craig Haney; and Curt Banks conducted the Stanford 
prison study; in which college students were randomly assigned to play the 
roles of prisoners and guards in a mock prison。 
1974 Stanley Milgram published Obedience to Authority; outlining the methods; 
findings; and significance of his obedience research。 
1975 E。 O。 Wilson published Sociobiology: The New Synthesis; describing the 
application of genetics to the study of social behavior。 

350 


CHAPTER 17: SOCIAL PROCESSES AND RELATIONSHIPS 

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING 

Aronson; E。 (1994)。 The Social Animal; 7th Ed。 New York: W。 H。 Freeman。 A narrative approach to 
social psychology。 This classic presents theory and research in an interesting and very 
relevant manner。 Topics covered include prejudice; propaganda; war; alienation; aggression; 
unrest; and political upheaval。 

Carkenord; D。 M。 & Bullington; J。 (1993)。 Bringing Cognitive Dissonance to the Classroom。 Teaching of 
Psychology; 20(l); 41…43。 Provides a sample handout for use during lectures on cognitive 
dissonance; the handout enables students to see the areas of dissonance in their own lives。 

Cialdini; R。 B。 (1988)。 Influence: Science and Practice; 2nd Ed。 Glenview; IL: Scott; Foresman。 A lively 
account of theory and research in the area of social influence; contains many real…world 
illustrations。 

Cialdini; R。; & Trost; M。 (1998)。 Social Influence。 Social Norms; Conformity and pliance。 In The 
Handbook of Social Psychology; Vol。 2; 4th Ed。; 151…192。 A prehensive review of research on 
social norms; conformity; and pliance organized around three goals of behavior。 The 
goals are to behave effectively; to build and maintain relationships and to manage self…
concept。 

Deaux; K。; & Wrightsman; L。 (1988)。 Social Psychology; 5th Ed。 Pacific Grove; CA: Brooks/Cole。 A 
basic text with wide coverage。 Research…oriented; with emphasis on applications of social 
psychology。 

Evans; R。 (1980)。 The Making of Social Psychology Discussions with Creative Contributors。 New York: 
Gardner Press。 A collection of Evans’ discussions with nineteen significant contributors to the 
field of social psychology; and is an excellent reference for both biographical and historical 
material。 

Festinger; L。 (1957)。 A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance。 Evanston; IL: Row; Peterson。 A classic text in 
social psychology。 Explores the relationship between thoughts; feelings; and behavior; and 
shows that inconsistent cognitions can lead to changes in attitudes and behavior。 

Lewin; K。 (1951)。 Field Theory in Social Science: Selected Theoretical Papers。 Edited by Dorwin 
Cartwright。 New York: Harpers。 A classic text by the founder of the discipline of social 
psychology。 

Reber; A。 S。 (1985)。 The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology。 London: The Penguin Group。 A concise; 
cogent dictionary of even the most obscure psychological terms。 

Rosenthal; R。; & Jacobson; L。 (1968)。 Pygmalion in the Classroom: Teacher Expectations and Intellectual 
Development。 New York: Holt; Rinehart & Winston。 Classic study of the self…fulfilling 
prophecy process and its application in the classroom。 

Ross; L。; & Nisbett; R。 (1991)。 The Person and the Situation: Perspectives of Social Psychology。 New 
York: McGraw…Hill。 An excellent summary and review of the field of social psychology by 
two leading researchers。 Presents the plex and often contradictory findings of social 
psychology in a manner easily understood by all。 

Tesser; A。 (1995)。 Advanced Social Psychology。 New York: McGraw…Hill。 An excellent introduction 
to the field of social psychology。 Individual chapters are written by leading researchers in 
different areas of social psychology。 

351 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

352 


CHAPTER 17: SOCIAL PROCESSES AND RELATIONSHIPS 

DISCOVERING PSYCHOLOGY 

PROGRAM 17: SEX AND GENDER 

Overview 

The ways in which males and females are similar and different; and how sex roles reflect 
social values and psychological knowledge。 

Key Issues 

How sex hormones affect gender behavior in rats; how the environment affects gende

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