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Fourth　Book







The　Politics











Chapter　33







The　Insular　Supremacy　and　the　Continental　Powers　　North　America



and　France











　　　　In　all　ages　there　have　been　cities　or　countries　which　have　been



pre…eminent　above　all　others　in　industry；　commerce；　and　navigation；



but　a　supremacy　such　as　that　which　exists　in　our　days；　the　world



has　never　before　witnessed。　In　all　ages；　nations　and　powers　have



striven　to　attain　to　the　dominion　of　the　world；　but　hitherto　not



one　of　them　has　erected　its　power　on　so　broad　a　foundation。　How



vain　do　the　efforts　of　those　appear　to　us　who　have　striven　to　found



their　universal　dominion　on　military　power；　compared　with　the



attempt　of　England　to　raise　her　entire　territory　into　one　immense



manufacturing；　commercial；　and　maritime　city；　and　to　become　among



the　countries　and　kingdoms　of　the　earth；　that　which　a　great　city　is



in　relation　to　its　surrounding　territory。　to　comprise　within



herself　all　industries；　arts；　and　sciences；　all　great　commerce　and



wealth；　all　navigation　and　naval　power　　a　world's　metropolis



which　supplies　all　nations　with　manufactured　goods；　and　supplies



herself　in　exchange　from　every　nation　with　those　raw　materials　and



agricultural　products　of　a　useful　or　acceptable　kind；　which　each



other　nation　is　fitted　by　nature　to　yield　to　her　　a



treasure…house　of　all　great　capital　　a　banking　establishment　for



all　nations；　which　controls　the　circulating　medium　of　the　whole



world；　and　by　loans　and　the　receipt　of　interest　on　them　makes　all



the　peoples　of　the　earth　her　tributaries。　Let　us；　however；　do



justice　to　this　Power　and　to　her　efforts。　The　world　has　not　been



hindered　in　its　progress；　but　immensely　aided　in　it；　by　England。



She　has　become　an　example　and　a　pattern　to　all　nations　　in



internal　and　in　foreign　policy；　as　well　as　in　great　inventions　and



enterprises　of　every　kind；　in　perfecting　industrial　processes　and



means　of　transport；　as　well　as　in　the　discovery　and　bringing　into



cultivation　uncultivated　lands；　especially　in　the　acquisition　of



the　natural　riches　of　tropical　countries；　and　in　the　civilisation



of　barbarous　races　or　of　such　as　have　retrograded　into　barbarism。



Who　can　tell　how　far　behind　the　world　might　yet　remain　if　no



England　had　ever　existed？　And　if　she　now　ceased　to　exist；　who　can



estimate　how　far　the　human　race　might　retrograde？　Let　us　then



congratulate　ourselves　on　the　immense　progress　of　that　nation；　and



wish　her　prosperity　for　all　future　time。　But　ought　we　on　that



account　also　to　wish　that　she　may　erect　a　universal　dominion　on　the



ruins　of　the　other　nationalities？　Nothing　but　unfathomable



cosmopolitanism　or　shopkeepers'　narrow…mindedness　can　give　an



assenting　answer　to　that　question。　In　our　previous　chapters　we　have



pointed　out　the　results　of　such　denationalisation；　and　shown　that



the　culture　and　civilisation　of　the　human　race　can　only　be　brought



about　by　placing　many　nations　in　similar　positions　of　civilisation；



wealth；　and　power；　that　just　as　England　herself　has　raised　herself



from　a　condition　of　barbarism　to　her　present　high　position；　so　the



same　path　lies　open　for　other　nations　to　follow：　and　that　at　this



time　more　than　one　nation　is　qualified　to　strive　to　attain　the



highest　degree　of　civilisation；　wealth；　and　power。　Let　us　now　state



summarily　the　maxims　of　State　policy　by　means　of　which　England　has



attained　her　present　greatness。　They　may　be　briefly　stated　thus：



　　　　Always　to　favour　the　importation　of　productive　power；（1*）　in



preference　to　the　importation　of　goods。



　　　　Carefully　to　cherish　and　to　protect　the　development　of　the



productive　power。



　　　　To　import　only　raw　materials　and　agricultural　products；　and　to



export　nothing　but　manufactured　goods。



　　　　To　direct　any　surplus　of　productive　power　to　colonisation；　and



to　the　subjection　of　barbarous　nations。



　　　　To　reserve　exclusively　to　the　mother　country　the　supply　of　the



colonies　and　subject　countries　with　manufactured　goods；　but　in



return　to　receive　on　preferential　terms　their　raw　materials　and



especially　their　colonial　produce。



　　　　To　devote　especial　care　to　the　coast　navigation；　to　the　trade。



Between　the　mother　country　and　the　colonies；　to　encourage



seafisheries　by　means　of　bounties；　and　to　take　as　active　a　part　as



possible　in　international　navigation。



　　　　By　these　means　to　found　a　naval　supremacy；　and　by　means　of　it



to　extend　foreign　commerce；　and　continually　to　increase　her



colonial　possessions。



　　　　To　grant　freedom　in　trade　with　the　colonies　and　in　navigation



only　so　far　as　she　can　gain　more　by　it　than　she　loses。



　　　　To　grant　reciprocal　navigation　privileges　only　if　the　advantage



is　on　the　side　of　England；　or　if　foreign　nations　can　by　that　means



be　restrained　from　introducing　restrictions　on　navigation　in　their



own　favour。



　　　　To　grant　concessions　to　foreign　independent　nations　in　respect



of　the　import　of　agricultural　products；　only　in　case　concessions　in



respect　of　her　own　manufactured　products　can　be　gained　thereby。



　　　　In　cases　where　such　concessions　cannot　be　obtained　by　treaty；



to　attain　the　object　of　them　by　means　of　contraband　trade。



　　　　To　make　wars　and　to　contract　alliances　with　exclusive　regard　to



her　manufacturing；　commercial；　maritime；　and　colonial　interests。　To



gain　by　these　alike　from　friends　and　foes：　from　the　latter　by



interrupting　their　commerce　at　sea；　from　the　former　by　ruining



their　manufactures　through　subsidies　which　are　paid　in　the　shape　of



English　manufactured　goods。



　　　　These　maxims　were　in　former　times　plainly　professed　by　all



English　ministers　and　parliamentary　speakers。　The　ministers　of



George　I　in　1721　openly　declared；　on　the　occasion　of　the



prohibition　of　the　importation　of　the　manufactures　of　India；　that



it　was　clear　that　a　nation　could　only　become　wealthy　and　powerful



if　she　imported　raw　materials　and　exported　manufactured　goods。　Even



in　the　times　of　Lords　Chatham　and　North；　they　did　not　hesitate　to



declare　in　open　Parliament　that　it　ought　not　to　be　permitted　that



even　a　single　horse…shoe　nail　should　be　manufactured　in　North



America。　In　Adam　Smith's　time；　a　new　maxim　was　for　the　first　time



added　to　those　which　we　have　above　stated；　namely；　to　conceal　the



true　policy　of　England　under　the　cosmopolitical　expressions　and



arguments　which　Adam　Smith　had　discovered；　in　order　to　induce



foreign　nations　not　to　imitate　that　policy。



　　　　It　is　a　very　common　clever　device　that　when　anyone　has　attained



the　summit　of　greatness；　he　kicks　away　the　ladder　by　which　he　has



climbed　up；　in　order　to　deprive　others　of　the　means　of　climbing　up



after　him。　In　this　lies　the　secret　of　the　cosmopolitical　doctrine



of　Adam　Smith；　and　of　the　cosmopolitical　tendencies　of　his　great



contemporary　William　Pitt；　and　of　all　his　successors　in　the　British



Government　administrations。



　　　　Any　nation　which　by　means　of　protective　duties　and　restrictions



on　navigation　has　raised　her　manufacturing　power　and　her　navigation



to　such　a　degree　of　development　that　no　other　nation　can　sustain



free　competition　with　her；　can　do　nothing　wiser　than　to　throw　away



these　ladders　of　her　greatness；　to　preach　to　other　nations　the



benefits　of　free　trade；　and　to　declare　in　penitent　tones　that　she



has　hitherto　wandered　in　the　paths　of　error；　and　has　now　for　the



first　time　succeeded　in　discovering　the　truth。



　　　　William　Pitt　was　the　first　English　statesman　who　clearly



perceived　in　what　way　the　cosmopolitical　theory　of　Adam　Smith　could



be　properly　made　use　of；　and　not　in　vain　did　he　himself　carry　about



a　copy　of　the　work　on　the　Wealth　of　Nations。　His　speech　in　1786；



which　was　addressed　neither　to　Parliament　nor　to　the　nation；　but



clearly　to　the　ears　of　the　statesmen　of　France；　who　were　destitute



of　all　experience　and　political　insight；　and　solely　intended　to



influence　the　latter　in　favour　of　the　Eden　Treaty；　is　an　excellent



specimen　of　Smith's　style　of　reasoning。　By　nature　he　said　France



was　adapted　for　agriculture　and　the　production　of　wine；　as　England



was　thus　adapted　to　manufacturing　production。　These　nations　ought



to　act　towards　one　another　just　as　two　great　merchants　would　do　who



carry　on　different　branches　of　trade　and　who　reciprocally　enrich



one　another　by　the　exchange　of　goods。（2*）　Not　a　word　here　of　the



old　maxim　of　England；　that　a　nation　can　only　attain　to　the　highest



degree　of　wealth　and　power　in　her　foreign　trade　by　the　exchange　of



manufactured　products　against　agricultural　product