Ì«×ÓүС˵Íø > Ó¢Óïµç×ÓÊé > the formation of vegetable mould >

µÚ36½Ú

the formation of vegetable mould-µÚ36½Ú

С˵£º the formation of vegetable mould ×ÖÊý£º ÿҳ4000×Ö

°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡û »ò ¡ú ¿É¿ìËÙÉÏÏ·­Ò³£¬°´¼üÅÌÉ쵀 Enter ¼ü¿É»Øµ½±¾ÊéĿ¼ҳ£¬°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡ü ¿É»Øµ½±¾Ò³¶¥²¿£¡
¡ª¡ª¡ª¡ªÎ´ÔĶÁÍꣿ¼ÓÈëÊéÇ©ÒѱãÏ´μÌÐøÔĶÁ£¡



thickness¡£¡¡¡¡Why¡¡worms¡¡should¡¡penetrate¡¡and¡¡bring¡¡up¡¡chalk¡¡in¡¡some¡¡
places¡¡and¡¡not¡¡in¡¡others¡¡I¡¡do¡¡not¡¡know¡£

In¡¡many¡¡districts¡¡where¡¡the¡¡land¡¡is¡¡nearly¡¡level£»¡¡a¡¡bed¡¡several¡¡
feet¡¡in¡¡thickness¡¡of¡¡red¡¡clay¡¡full¡¡of¡¡unworn¡¡flints¡¡overlies¡¡the¡¡
Upper¡¡Chalk¡£¡¡¡¡This¡¡overlying¡¡matter£»¡¡the¡¡surface¡¡of¡¡which¡¡has¡¡been¡¡
converted¡¡into¡¡mould£»¡¡consists¡¡of¡¡the¡¡undissolved¡¡residue¡¡from¡¡the¡¡
chalk¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡may¡¡be¡¡well¡¡here¡¡to¡¡recall¡¡the¡¡case¡¡of¡¡the¡¡fragments¡¡of¡¡
chalk¡¡buried¡¡beneath¡¡worm¡­castings¡¡on¡¡one¡¡of¡¡my¡¡fields£»¡¡the¡¡angles¡¡
of¡¡which¡¡were¡¡so¡¡completely¡¡rounded¡¡in¡¡the¡¡course¡¡of¡¡29¡¡years¡¡that¡¡
the¡¡fragments¡¡now¡¡resembled¡¡water¡­worn¡¡pebbles¡£¡¡¡¡This¡¡must¡¡have¡¡
been¡¡effected¡¡by¡¡the¡¡carbonic¡¡acid¡¡in¡¡the¡¡rain¡¡and¡¡in¡¡the¡¡ground£»¡¡
by¡¡the¡¡humus¡­acids£»¡¡and¡¡by¡¡the¡¡corroding¡¡power¡¡of¡¡living¡¡roots¡£¡¡¡¡
Why¡¡a¡¡thick¡¡mass¡¡of¡¡residue¡¡has¡¡not¡¡been¡¡left¡¡on¡¡the¡¡Chalk£»¡¡
wherever¡¡the¡¡land¡¡is¡¡nearly¡¡level£»¡¡may¡¡perhaps¡¡be¡¡accounted¡¡for¡¡by¡¡
the¡¡percolation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡fine¡¡particles¡¡into¡¡the¡¡fissures£»¡¡which¡¡are¡¡
often¡¡present¡¡in¡¡the¡¡chalk¡¡and¡¡are¡¡either¡¡open¡¡or¡¡are¡¡filled¡¡up¡¡
with¡¡impure¡¡chalk£»¡¡or¡¡into¡¡the¡¡solid¡¡chalk¡¡itself¡£¡¡¡¡That¡¡such¡¡
percolation¡¡occurs¡¡can¡¡hardly¡¡be¡¡doubted¡£¡¡¡¡My¡¡son¡¡collected¡¡some¡¡
powdered¡¡and¡¡fragmentary¡¡chalk¡¡beneath¡¡the¡¡turf¡¡near¡¡Winchester£»¡¡
the¡¡former¡¡was¡¡found¡¡by¡¡Colonel¡¡Parsons£»¡¡R¡£¡¡E¡££»¡¡to¡¡contain¡¡10¡¡per¡¡
cent¡££»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡fragments¡¡8¡¡per¡¡cent¡£¡¡of¡¡earthy¡¡matter¡£¡¡¡¡On¡¡the¡¡
flanks¡¡of¡¡the¡¡escarpment¡¡near¡¡Abinger¡¡in¡¡Surrey£»¡¡some¡¡chalk¡¡close¡¡
beneath¡¡a¡¡layer¡¡of¡¡flints£»¡¡2¡¡inches¡¡in¡¡thickness¡¡and¡¡covered¡¡by¡¡8¡¡
inches¡¡of¡¡mould£»¡¡yielded¡¡a¡¡residue¡¡of¡¡3¡£7¡¡per¡¡cent¡£¡¡of¡¡earthy¡¡
matter¡£¡¡¡¡On¡¡the¡¡other¡¡hand¡¡the¡¡Upper¡¡Chalk¡¡properly¡¡contains£»¡¡as¡¡I¡¡
was¡¡informed¡¡by¡¡the¡¡late¡¡David¡¡Forbes¡¡who¡¡had¡¡made¡¡many¡¡analyses£»¡¡
only¡¡from¡¡1¡¡to¡¡2¡¡per¡¡cent¡£¡¡of¡¡earthy¡¡matter£»¡¡and¡¡two¡¡samples¡¡from¡¡
pits¡¡near¡¡my¡¡house¡¡contained¡¡1¡£3¡¡and¡¡0¡£6¡¡per¡¡cent¡£¡¡¡¡I¡¡mention¡¡these¡¡
latter¡¡cases¡¡because£»¡¡from¡¡the¡¡thickness¡¡of¡¡the¡¡overlying¡¡bed¡¡of¡¡
red¡¡clay¡¡with¡¡flints£»¡¡I¡¡had¡¡imagined¡¡that¡¡the¡¡underlying¡¡chalk¡¡
might¡¡here¡¡be¡¡less¡¡pure¡¡than¡¡elsewhere¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡cause¡¡of¡¡the¡¡residue¡¡
accumulating¡¡more¡¡in¡¡some¡¡places¡¡than¡¡in¡¡others£»¡¡may¡¡be¡¡attributed¡¡
to¡¡a¡¡layer¡¡of¡¡argillaceous¡¡matter¡¡having¡¡been¡¡left¡¡at¡¡an¡¡early¡¡
period¡¡on¡¡the¡¡chalk£»¡¡and¡¡this¡¡would¡¡check¡¡the¡¡subsequent¡¡
percolation¡¡of¡¡earthy¡¡matter¡¡into¡¡it¡£

From¡¡the¡¡facts¡¡now¡¡given¡¡we¡¡may¡¡conclude¡¡that¡¡castings¡¡ejected¡¡on¡¡
our¡¡Chalk¡¡Downs¡¡suffer¡¡some¡¡loss¡¡by¡¡the¡¡percolation¡¡of¡¡their¡¡finer¡¡
matter¡¡into¡¡the¡¡chalk¡£¡¡¡¡But¡¡such¡¡impure¡¡superficial¡¡chalk£»¡¡when¡¡
dissolved£»¡¡would¡¡leave¡¡a¡¡larger¡¡supply¡¡of¡¡earthy¡¡matter¡¡to¡¡be¡¡added¡¡
to¡¡the¡¡mould¡¡than¡¡in¡¡the¡¡case¡¡of¡¡pure¡¡chalk¡£¡¡¡¡Besides¡¡the¡¡loss¡¡
caused¡¡by¡¡percolation£»¡¡some¡¡fine¡¡earth¡¡is¡¡certainly¡¡washed¡¡down¡¡the¡¡
sloping¡¡grass¡­covered¡¡surfaces¡¡of¡¡our¡¡Downs¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡washing¡­down¡¡
process£»¡¡however£»¡¡will¡¡be¡¡checked¡¡in¡¡the¡¡course¡¡of¡¡time£»¡¡for¡¡
although¡¡I¡¡do¡¡not¡¡know¡¡how¡¡thin¡¡a¡¡layer¡¡of¡¡mould¡¡suffices¡¡to¡¡
support¡¡worms£»¡¡yet¡¡a¡¡limit¡¡must¡¡at¡¡last¡¡be¡¡reached£»¡¡and¡¡then¡¡their¡¡
castings¡¡would¡¡cease¡¡to¡¡be¡¡ejected¡¡or¡¡would¡¡become¡¡scanty¡£

The¡¡following¡¡cases¡¡show¡¡that¡¡a¡¡considerable¡¡quantity¡¡of¡¡fine¡¡earth¡¡
is¡¡washed¡¡down¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡thickness¡¡of¡¡the¡¡mould¡¡was¡¡measured¡¡at¡¡points¡¡
12¡¡yards¡¡apart¡¡across¡¡a¡¡small¡¡valley¡¡in¡¡the¡¡Chalk¡¡near¡¡Winchester¡£¡¡¡¡
The¡¡sides¡¡sloped¡¡gently¡¡at¡¡first£»¡¡then¡¡became¡¡inclined¡¡at¡¡about¡¡20¡¡
degrees£»¡¡then¡¡more¡¡gently¡¡to¡¡near¡¡the¡¡bottom£»¡¡which¡¡transversely¡¡
was¡¡almost¡¡level¡¡and¡¡about¡¡50¡¡yards¡¡across¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡the¡¡bottom£»¡¡the¡¡
mean¡¡thickness¡¡of¡¡the¡¡mould¡¡from¡¡five¡¡measurements¡¡was¡¡8¡£3¡¡inches£»¡¡
whilst¡¡on¡¡the¡¡sides¡¡of¡¡the¡¡valley£»¡¡where¡¡the¡¡inclination¡¡varied¡¡
between¡¡14¡¡degrees¡¡and¡¡20¡¡degrees£»¡¡its¡¡mean¡¡thickness¡¡was¡¡rather¡¡
less¡¡than¡¡3¡£5¡¡inches¡£¡¡¡¡As¡¡the¡¡turf¡­covered¡¡bottom¡¡of¡¡the¡¡valley¡¡
sloped¡¡at¡¡an¡¡angle¡¡of¡¡only¡¡between¡¡2¡¡degrees¡¡and¡¡3¡¡degrees£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡
probable¡¡that¡¡most¡¡of¡¡the¡¡8¡£3¡­inch¡¡layer¡¡of¡¡mould¡¡had¡¡been¡¡washed¡¡
down¡¡from¡¡the¡¡flanks¡¡of¡¡the¡¡valley£»¡¡and¡¡not¡¡from¡¡the¡¡upper¡¡part¡£¡¡¡¡
But¡¡as¡¡a¡¡shepherd¡¡said¡¡that¡¡he¡¡had¡¡seen¡¡water¡¡flowing¡¡in¡¡this¡¡
valley¡¡after¡¡the¡¡sudden¡¡thawing¡¡of¡¡snow£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡possible¡¡that¡¡some¡¡
earth¡¡may¡¡have¡¡been¡¡brought¡¡down¡¡from¡¡the¡¡upper¡¡part£»¡¡or£»¡¡on¡¡the¡¡
other¡¡hand£»¡¡that¡¡some¡¡may¡¡have¡¡been¡¡carried¡¡further¡¡down¡¡the¡¡
valley¡£¡¡¡¡Closely¡¡similar¡¡results£»¡¡with¡¡respect¡¡to¡¡the¡¡thickness¡¡of¡¡
the¡¡mould£»¡¡were¡¡obtained¡¡in¡¡a¡¡neighbouring¡¡valley¡£

St¡£¡¡Catherine's¡¡Hill£»¡¡near¡¡Winchester£»¡¡is¡¡327¡¡feet¡¡in¡¡height£»¡¡and¡¡
consists¡¡of¡¡a¡¡steep¡¡cone¡¡of¡¡chalk¡¡about¡¡0¡£25¡¡of¡¡a¡¡mile¡¡in¡¡diameter¡£¡¡¡¡
The¡¡upper¡¡part¡¡was¡¡converted¡¡by¡¡the¡¡Romans£»¡¡or£»¡¡as¡¡some¡¡think£»¡¡by¡¡
the¡¡ancient¡¡Britons£»¡¡into¡¡an¡¡encampment£»¡¡by¡¡the¡¡excavation¡¡of¡¡a¡¡
deep¡¡and¡¡broad¡¡ditch¡¡all¡¡round¡¡it¡£¡¡¡¡Most¡¡of¡¡the¡¡chalk¡¡removed¡¡
during¡¡the¡¡work¡¡was¡¡thrown¡¡upwards£»¡¡by¡¡which¡¡a¡¡projecting¡¡bank¡¡was¡¡
formed£»¡¡and¡¡this¡¡effectually¡¡prevents¡¡worm¡­castings¡¡£¨which¡¡are¡¡
numerous¡¡in¡¡parts£©£»¡¡stones£»¡¡and¡¡other¡¡objects¡¡from¡¡being¡¡washed¡¡or¡¡
rolled¡¡into¡¡the¡¡ditch¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡mould¡¡on¡¡the¡¡upper¡¡and¡¡fortified¡¡part¡¡
of¡¡the¡¡hill¡¡was¡¡found¡¡to¡¡be¡¡in¡¡most¡¡places¡¡only¡¡from¡¡2¡£5¡¡to¡¡3¡£5¡¡
inches¡¡in¡¡thickness£»¡¡whereas¡¡it¡¡had¡¡accumulated¡¡at¡¡the¡¡foot¡¡of¡¡the¡¡
embankment¡¡above¡¡the¡¡ditch¡¡to¡¡a¡¡thickness¡¡in¡¡most¡¡places¡¡of¡¡from¡¡8¡¡
to¡¡9¡£5¡¡inches¡£¡¡¡¡On¡¡the¡¡embankment¡¡itself¡¡the¡¡mould¡¡was¡¡only¡¡1¡¡to¡¡
1¡£5¡¡inch¡¡in¡¡thickness£»¡¡and¡¡within¡¡the¡¡ditch¡¡at¡¡the¡¡bottom¡¡it¡¡varied¡¡
from¡¡2¡£5¡¡to¡¡3¡£5£»¡¡but¡¡was¡¡in¡¡one¡¡spot¡¡6¡¡inches¡¡in¡¡thickness¡£¡¡¡¡On¡¡the¡¡
north¡­west¡¡side¡¡of¡¡the¡¡hill£»¡¡either¡¡no¡¡embankment¡¡had¡¡ever¡¡been¡¡
thrown¡¡up¡¡above¡¡the¡¡ditch£»¡¡or¡¡it¡¡had¡¡subsequently¡¡been¡¡removed£»¡¡so¡¡
that¡¡here¡¡there¡¡was¡¡nothing¡¡to¡¡prevent¡¡worm¡­castings£»¡¡earth¡¡and¡¡
stones¡¡being¡¡washed¡¡into¡¡the¡¡ditch£»¡¡at¡¡the¡¡bottom¡¡of¡¡which¡¡the¡¡
mould¡¡formed¡¡a¡¡layer¡¡from¡¡11¡¡to¡¡22¡¡inches¡¡in¡¡thickness¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡should¡¡
however¡¡be¡¡stated¡¡that¡¡here¡¡and¡¡on¡¡other¡¡parts¡¡of¡¡the¡¡slope£»¡¡the¡¡
bed¡¡of¡¡mould¡¡often¡¡contained¡¡fragments¡¡of¡¡chalk¡¡and¡¡flint¡¡which¡¡had¡¡
obviously¡¡rolled¡¡down¡¡at¡¡different¡¡times¡¡from¡¡above¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡
interstices¡¡in¡¡the¡¡underlying¡¡fragmentary¡¡chalk¡¡were¡¡also¡¡filled¡¡up¡¡
with¡¡mould¡£

My¡¡son¡¡examined¡¡the¡¡surface¡¡of¡¡this¡¡hill¡¡to¡¡its¡¡base¡¡in¡¡a¡¡south¡­
west¡¡direction¡£¡¡¡¡Beneath¡¡the¡¡great¡¡ditch£»¡¡where¡¡the¡¡slope¡¡was¡¡about¡¡
24¡¡degrees£»¡¡the¡¡mould¡¡was¡¡very¡¡thin£»¡¡namely£»¡¡from¡¡1¡£5¡¡to¡¡2¡£5¡¡
inches£»¡¡whilst¡¡near¡¡the¡¡base£»¡¡where¡¡the¡¡slope¡¡was¡¡only¡¡3¡¡degrees¡¡to¡¡
4¡¡degrees£»¡¡it¡¡increased¡¡to¡¡between¡¡8¡¡and¡¡9¡¡inches¡¡in¡¡thickness¡£¡¡¡¡We¡¡
may¡¡therefore¡¡conclude¡¡that¡¡on¡¡this¡¡artificially¡¡modified¡¡hill£»¡¡as¡¡
well¡¡as¡¡in¡¡the¡¡natural¡¡valleys¡¡of¡¡the¡¡neighbouring¡¡Chalk¡¡Downs£»¡¡
some¡¡fine¡¡earth£»¡¡probably¡¡derived¡¡in¡¡large¡¡part¡¡from¡¡worm¡­castings£»¡¡
is¡¡washed¡¡down£»¡¡and¡¡accumulates¡¡in¡¡the¡¡lower¡¡parts£»¡¡notwithstanding¡¡
the¡¡percolation¡¡of¡¡an¡¡unknown¡¡quantity¡¡into¡¡the¡¡underlying¡¡chalk£»¡¡a¡¡
supply¡¡of¡¡fresh¡¡earthy¡¡matter¡¡being¡¡afforded¡¡by¡¡the¡¡dissolution¡¡of¡¡
the¡¡chalk¡¡through¡¡atmospheric¡¡and¡¡other¡¡agencies¡£



CHAPTER¡¡VIICONCLUSION¡£



Summary¡¡of¡¡the¡¡part¡¡which¡¡worms¡¡have¡¡played¡¡in¡¡the¡¡history¡¡of¡¡the¡¡
worldTheir¡¡aid¡¡in¡¡the¡¡disintegration¡¡of¡¡rocksIn¡¡the¡¡denudation¡¡
of¡¡the¡¡landIn¡¡the¡¡preservation¡¡of¡¡ancient¡¡remainsIn¡¡the¡¡
preparation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡soil¡¡for¡¡the¡¡growth¡¡of¡¡plantsMental¡¡powers¡¡of¡¡
wormsConclusion¡£

Worms¡¡have¡¡played¡¡a¡¡more¡¡important¡¡part¡¡in¡¡the¡¡history¡¡of¡¡the¡¡world¡¡
than¡¡most¡¡persons¡¡would¡¡at¡¡first¡¡suppose¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡almost¡¡all¡¡humid¡¡
countries¡¡they¡¡are¡¡extraordinarily¡¡numerous£»¡¡and¡¡for¡¡their¡¡size¡¡
possess¡¡great¡¡muscular¡¡power¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡many¡¡parts¡¡of¡¡England¡¡a¡¡weight¡¡of¡¡
more¡¡than¡¡ten¡¡tons¡¡£¨10£»516¡¡kilogrammes£©¡¡of¡¡dry¡¡earth¡¡annually¡¡
passes¡¡through¡¡their¡¡bodies¡¡and¡¡is¡¡brought¡¡to¡¡the¡¡surface¡¡on¡¡each¡¡
acre¡¡of¡¡land£»¡¡so¡¡that¡¡the¡¡whole¡¡superficial¡¡bed¡¡of¡¡vegetable¡¡mould¡¡
passes¡¡through¡¡their¡¡bodies¡¡in¡¡the¡¡course¡¡of¡¡every¡¡few¡¡years¡£¡¡¡¡From¡¡
the¡¡collapsing¡¡of¡¡the¡¡old¡¡burrows¡¡the¡¡mould¡¡is¡¡in¡¡constant¡¡though¡¡
slow¡¡movement£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡particles¡¡composing¡¡it¡¡are¡¡thus¡¡rubbed¡¡
together¡£¡¡¡¡By¡¡these¡¡means¡¡fresh¡¡surfaces¡¡are¡¡continually¡¡exposed¡¡to¡¡
the¡¡action¡¡of¡¡the¡¡carbonic¡¡acid¡¡in¡¡the¡¡soil£»¡¡and¡¡of¡¡the¡¡humus¡­acids¡¡
which¡¡appear¡¡to¡¡be¡¡still¡¡more¡¡efficient¡¡in¡¡the¡¡decomposition¡¡of¡¡
rocks¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡generation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡humus¡­acids¡¡is¡¡probably¡¡hastened¡¡
during¡¡the¡¡digestion¡¡of¡¡the¡¡many¡¡half¡­decayed¡¡leaves¡¡which¡¡worms¡¡
consume¡£¡¡¡¡Thus¡¡the¡¡particles¡¡of¡¡earth£»¡¡forming¡¡the¡¡superficial¡¡
mould£»¡¡are¡¡subjected¡¡to¡¡conditions¡¡eminently¡¡favourable¡¡for¡¡their¡¡
decomposition¡¡and¡¡disintegration¡£¡¡¡¡Moreover£»¡¡the¡¡particles¡¡of¡¡the¡¡
softer¡¡rocks¡¡suffer¡¡some¡¡amount¡¡of¡¡mechanical¡¡trituration¡¡in¡¡the¡¡
muscular¡¡gizzards¡¡of¡¡worms£»¡¡in¡¡which¡¡small¡¡stones¡¡serve¡¡as¡¡mill¡­
stones¡£

The¡¡finely¡¡levigated¡¡castings£»¡¡when¡¡brought¡¡to¡¡the¡¡surface¡¡in¡¡a¡¡
moist¡¡condition£»¡¡flow¡¡during¡¡rainy¡¡weather¡¡down¡¡any¡¡moderate¡¡slope£»¡¡
and¡¡the¡¡smaller¡¡particles¡¡are¡¡washed¡¡far¡¡down¡¡even¡¡a¡¡gently¡¡
inclined¡¡surface¡£¡¡¡¡Castings¡¡when¡¡dry¡¡often¡¡crumble¡¡into¡¡small¡¡
pellets¡¡and¡¡these¡¡are¡¡apt¡¡to¡¡roll¡¡down¡¡any¡¡sloping¡¡surface¡£¡¡¡¡Where¡¡
the¡¡land¡¡is¡¡quite¡¡level¡¡and¡¡is¡¡covered¡¡with¡¡herbage£»¡¡and¡¡where¡¡the¡¡
climate¡¡is¡¡humid¡¡so¡¡that¡¡much¡¡dust¡¡cannot¡¡be¡¡blown¡¡away£»¡¡it¡¡appears¡¡
at¡¡first¡¡sight¡¡impossible¡¡that¡¡there¡¡should¡¡be¡¡any¡¡appreciable¡¡
amount¡¡of¡¡sub¡­aerial¡¡denudation£»¡¡but¡¡worm¡­castings¡¡are¡¡blown£»¡¡
especially¡¡whilst¡¡moist¡¡and¡¡viscid£»¡¡in¡¡one¡¡uniform¡¡direction¡¡by¡¡the¡¡
prevalent¡¡winds¡¡which¡¡are¡¡accompanied¡¡by¡¡rain¡£¡¡¡¡By¡¡these¡¡several¡¡
means¡¡the¡¡superficial¡¡mould¡¡is¡¡prevented¡¡from¡¡accumulating¡¡to¡¡a¡¡
great¡¡thickness£»¡¡and¡¡a¡¡thick¡¡bed¡¡of¡¡mould¡¡checks¡¡in¡¡many¡¡ways¡¡the¡¡
disintegration¡¡of¡¡the¡¡underlying¡¡rocks¡¡an

·µ»ØĿ¼ ÉÏÒ»Ò³ ÏÂÒ»Ò³ »Øµ½¶¥²¿ ÔÞ£¨0£© ²È£¨0£©

Äã¿ÉÄÜϲ»¶µÄ