the story of mankind-第52节

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as　are　the　laws　of　nature。　The　people　who　originated　the　idea

maintained　that　Europe；　in　its　nationalistic　stage　of　development；

could　only　survive　when　there　should　be　an　absolute　balance

of　the　many　conflicting　interests　of　the　entire　continent。

No　single　power　or　single　dynasty　must　ever　be　allowed　to

dominate　the　others。　During　the　Thirty　Years　War；　the

Habsburgs　had　been　the　victims　of　the　application　of　this　law。

They；　however；　had　been　unconscious　victims。　The　issues　during

that　struggle　were　so　clouded　in　a　haze　of　religious　strife

that　we　do　not　get　a　very　clear　view　of　the　main　tendencies

of　that　great　conflict。　But　from　that　time　on；　we　begin　to　see

how　cold；　economic　considerations　and　calculations　prevail　in

all　matters　of　international　importance。　We　discover　the

development　of　a　new　type　of　statesman；　the　statesman　with　the

personal　feelings　of　the　slide…rule　and　the　cash…register。　Jan

de　Witt　was　the　first　successful　exponent　of　this　new　school

of　politics。　William　III　was　the　first　great　pupil。　And　Louis

XIV　with　all　his　fame　and　glory；　was　the　first　conscious　victim。

There　have　been　many　others　since。







THE　RISE　OF　RUSSIA



THE　STORY　OF　THE　MYSTERIOUS　MOSCOVITE

EMPIRE　WHICH　SUDDENLY　BURST　UPON

THE　GRAND　POLITICAL　STAGE　OF　EUROPE





IN　the　year　1492；　as　you　know；　Columbus　discovered　America。

Early　in　the　year；　a　Tyrolese　by　the　name　of　Schnups；

travelling　as　the　head　of　a　scientific　expedition　for　the

Archbishop　of　Tyrol；　and　provided　with　the　best　letters

of　introduction　and　excellent　credit　tried　to　reach　the　mythical

town　of　Moscow。　He　did　not　succeed。　When　he　reached　the

frontiers　of　this　vast　Moscovite　state　which　was　vaguely　supposed

to　exist　in　the　extreme　Eastern　part　of　Europe；　he　was

firmly　turned　back。　No　foreigners　were　wanted。　And

Schnups　went　to　visit　the　heathen　Turk　in　Constantinople；　in

order　that　he　might　have　something　to　report　to　his　clerical

master　when　he　came　back　from　his　explorations。



Sixty…one　years　later；　Richard　Chancellor；　trying　to　discover

the　North…eastern　passage　to　the　Indies；　and　blown　by

an　ill　wind　into　the　White　Sea；　reached　the　mouth　of　the　Dwina

and　found　the　Moscovite　village　of　Kholmogory；　a　few　hours

from　the　spot　where　in　1584　the　town　of　Archangel　was　founded。

This　time　the　foreign　visitors　were　requested　to　come

to　Moscow　and　show　themselves　to　the　Grand　Duke。　They

went　and　returned　to　England　with　the　first　commercial　treaty

ever　concluded　between　Russia　and　the　western　world。　Other

nations　soon　followed　and　something　became　known　of　this

mysterious　land。



Geographically；　Russia　is　a　vast　plain。　The　Ural　mountains

are　low　and　form　no　barrier　against　invaders。　The

rivers　are　broad　but　often　shallow。　It　was　an　ideal　territory　for

nomads。



While　the　Roman　Empire　was　founded；　grew　in　power　and

disappeared　again；　Slavic　tribes；　who　had　long　since　left　their

homes　in　Central　Asia；　wandered　aimlessly　through　the　forests

and　plains　of　the　region　between　the　Dniester　and　Dnieper

rivers。　The　Greeks　had　sometimes　met　these　Slavs　and　a　few

travellers　of　the　third　and　fourth　centuries　mention　them。

Otherwise　they　were　as　little　known　as　were　the　Nevada　Indians

in　the　year　1800。



Unfortunately　for　the　peace　of　these　primitive　peoples；　a

very　convenient　trade…route　ran　through　their　country。　This

was　the　main　road　from　northern　Europe　to　Constantinople。

It　followed　the　coast　of　the　Baltic　until　the　Neva　was　reached。

Then　it　crossed　Lake　Ladoga　and　went　southward　along　the

Volkhov　river。　Then　through　Lake　Ilmen　and　up　the　small

Lovat　river。　Then　there　was　a　short　portage　until　the　Dnieper

was　reached。　Then　down　the　Dnieper　into　the　Black　Sea。



The　Norsemen　knew　of　this　road　at　a　very　early　date。　In

the　ninth　century　they　began　to　settle　in　northern　Russia；　just

as　other　Norsemen　were　laying　the　foundation　for　independent

states　in　Germany　and　France。　But　in　the　year　862；　three

Norsemen；　brothers；　crossed　the　Baltic　and　founded　three　small

dynasties。　Of　the　three　brothers；　only　one；　Rurik；　lived　for　a

number　of　years。　He　took　possession　of　the　territory　of　his

brothers；　and　twenty　years　after　the　arrival　of　this　first

Norseman；　a　Slavic　state　had　been　established　with　Kiev　as　its

capital。



From　Kiev　to　the　Black　Sea　is　a　short　distance。　Soon　the

existence　of　an　organised　Slavic　State　became　known　in

Constantinople。　This　meant　a　new　field　for　the　zealous

missionaries　of　the　Christian　faith。　Byzantine　monks　followed　the

Dnieper　on　their　way　northward　and　soon　reached　the　heart　of

Russia。　They　found　the　people　worshipping　strange　gods

who　were　supposed　to　dwell　in　woods　and　rivers　and　in　mountain

caves。　They　taught　them　the　story　of　Jesus。　There　was

no　competition　from　the　side　of　Roman　missionaries。　These

good　men　were　too　busy　educating　the　heathen　Teutons　to

bother　about　the　distant　Slavs。　Hence　Russia　received　its　religion

and　its　alphabet　and　its　first　ideas　of　art　and　architecture

from　the　Byzantine　monks　and　as　the　Byzantine　empire　（a

relic　of　the　eastern　Roman　empire）　had　become　very　oriental

and　had　lost　many　of　its　European　traits；　the　Russians　suffered

in　consequence。



Politically　speaking　these　new　states　of　the　great　Russian

plains　did　not　fare　well。　It　was　the　Norse　habit　to　divide

every　inheritance　equally　among　all　the　sons。　No　sooner　had

a　small　state　been　founded　but　it　was　broken　up　among　eight

or　nine　heirs　who　in　turn　left　their　territory　to　an　ever　increasing

number　of　descendants。　It　was　inevitable　that　these　small

competing　states　should　quarrel　among　themselves。　Anarchy

was　the　order　of　the　day。　And　when　the　red　glow　of　the　eastern

horizon　told　the　people　of　the　threatened　invasion　of　a　savage

Asiatic　tribe；　the　little　states　were　too　weak　and　too　divided

to　render　any　sort　of　defence　against　this　terrible　enemy。



It　was　in　the　year　1224　that　the　first　great　Tartar　invasion

took　place　and　that　the　hordes　of　Jenghiz　Khan；　the　conqueror

of　China；　Bokhara；　Tashkent　and　Turkestan　made　their　first

appearance　in　the　west。　The　Slavic　armies　were　beaten　near

the　Kalka　river　and　Russia　was　at　the　mercy　of　the　Mongolians。

Just　as　suddenly　as　they　had　come　they　disappeared。

Thirteen　years　later；　in　1237；　however；　they　returned。　In　less

than　five　years　they　conquered　every　part　of　the　vast　Russian

plains。　Until　the　year　1380　when　Dmitry　Donskoi；　Grand

Duke　of　Moscow；　beat　them　on　the　plains　of　Kulikovo；　the

Tartars　were　the　masters　of　the　Russian　people。



All　in　all；　it　took　the　Russians　two　centuries　to　deliver

themselves　from　this　yoke。　For　a　yoke　it　was　and　a　most

offensive　and　objectionable　one。　It　turned　the　Slavic　peasants

into　miserable　slaves。　No　Russian　could　hope　to　survive　un…

less　he　was　willing　to　creep　before　a　dirty　little　yellow　man　who

sat　in　a　tent　somewhere　in　the　heart　of　the　steppes　of　southern

Russia　and　spat　at　him。　It　deprived　the　mass　of　the　people　of

all　feeling　of　honour　and　independence。　It　made　hunger　and

misery　and　maltreatment　and　personal　abuse　the　normal　state

of　human　existence。　Until　at　last　the　average　Russian；　were　he

peasant　or　nobleman；　went　about　his　business　like　a　neglected

dog　who　has　been　beaten　so　often　that　his　spirit　has　been　broken

and　he　dare　not　wag　his　tail　without　permission。



There　was　no　escape。　The　horsemen　of　the　Tartar　Khan

were　fast　and　merciless。　The　endless　prairie　did　not　give　a

man　a　chance　to　cross　into　the　safe　territory　of　his　neighbour。

He　must　keep　quiet　and　bear　what　his　yellow　master　decided

to　inflict　upon　him　or　run　the　risk　of　death。　Of　course；　Europe

might　have　interfered。　But　Europe　was　engaged　upon　business

of　its　own；　fighting　the　quarrels　between　the　Pope　and

the　emperor　or　suppressing　this　or　that　or　the　other　heresy。

And　so　Europe　left　the　Slav　to　his　fate；　and　forced　him　to

work　out　his　own　salvation。



The　final　saviour　of　Russia　was　one　of　the　many　small　states；

founded　by　the　early　Norse　rulers。　It　was　situated　in　the　heart

of　the　Russian　plain。　Its　capital；　Moscow；　was　upon　a　steep

hill　on　the　banks　of　the　Moskwa　river。　This　little　principality；

by　dint　of　pleasing　the　Tartar　（when　it　was　necessary　to

please）；　and　opposing　him　（when　it　was　safe　to　do　so）；　had；

during　the　middle　of　the　fourteenth　century　made　itself　the

leader　of　a　new　national　life。　It　must　be　remembered　that　the

Tartars　were　wholly　deficient　in　constructive　political　ability。

They　could　only　destroy。　Their　chief　aim　in　conquering　new

territories　was　to　obtain　revenue。　To　get　this　revenue　in　the

form　of　taxes；　it　was　necessary　to　allow　certain　remnants　of

the　old　political　organization　to　continue。　Hence　there　were

many　little　towns；　surviving　by　the　grace　of　the　Great　Khan；

that　they　might　act　as　tax…gatherers　and　rob　their　neighbours

for　the　benefit　of　the　Tartar　treasury。



The　state　of　Moscow；　growing　fat　at　the　expense　of　th