the idea of justice in political economy-第9节

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manifestation　of　the　self…esteem　of　the　lower　classes　a　simply
outrageous　revolt　against　the　doctrine　of　the　natural
aristocratic　organization　of　society。　Much　less　should　we　fall
into　the　mistake　of　all　aged　reformers　who；　because　they　have
achieved　something；　believe　that　the　world's　history　should　close
with　them　and　what　they　have　accomplished。　We　know　to…day　that
history　never　stands　still；　that　all　progress　of　history　is
gained　only　in　the　struggle　of　peoples　and　of　social　classes；　and
that　they　cannot　always　be　as　peaceful　as　in　a　nursery。　And　those
who　are　always　ready　to　dream　of　a　jolly　war　and　its　favorable
moral　consequences　should　not　forget　that　the　social　struggles
within　society　differ　from　wars　between　nations　only　in　degree；
not　in　kind。　Social　struggles　can　likewise　favorably　affect
peoples。　I　only　call　attention　to　the　struggles　between　the
plebeians　and　the　patricians。　There　can　be　no　progress　in
institutions　without　certain　social　struggles。　All　struggles
within　society　are　struggles　for　institutions；　and　that　for　the
progress　of　cultivation　the　individual　will　grow　enthusiastic；
will　even　sacrifice　his　life　for　that　for　which　classes　and
parties　fight；　is　so　inevitable；　so　salutary　that　now　and　then　we
do　not　find　fault　with　breaking　the　formal　law　in　such　contests。
　　　　There　is　no　worse　delusion　than　that　of　the　older　English
economists　that　there　are　a　number　of　simple　and　natural　legal
and　economic　institutions　which　have　always　been　as　they　are　and
will　always　remain　so；　that　all　progress　of　civilization　and
wealth　is　simply　an　individual　or　technical　one；　that　this　is
simply　a　question　of　increased　production　or　consumption　which
will　and　can　be　accomplished　on　the　basis　of　the　same　legal
institutions。　This　faith　in　the　stability　of　economic
institutions　was　the　result　of　the　naive　overweening　confidence
of　the　older　economists　in　the　omnipotence　of　the　individual　and
of　the　individual　life。　Socialism　then　has　perhaps　over…estimated
the　significance　of　social　institutions。　Historical　economics　and
the　modern　philosophy　of　law　have　given　them　their　due　position
by　showing　us　that　the　great　epochs　of　economic　progress　are
primarily　connected　with　the　reform　of　social　institutions。　The
great　messages　of　salvation　to　humanity　were　all　aimed　at　the
injustice　of　outworn　institutions；　by　higher　justice　and　better
institutions　humanity　is　educated　up　to　higher　forms　of　life。
　　　　As　little　as　the　social　institutions　of　antiquity　have
governed　modern　history；　as　certainly　as　slavery　and　serfdom　have
vanished；　as　certainly　as　all　past　progress　of　institutions　was
connected　with　apparent　success　in　distributing　wealth　and
incomes　in　a　more　just　way　and　in　adapting　it　more　and　more　to
personal　virtues　and　accomplishments；　as　certainly　as　this
increased　more　and　more　the　activity　of　all　individuals；　as
certain　as　all。this　is　it；　that　the　future　will　also　see　new
improvements　in　this　direction；　that　the　institutions　of　coming
centuries　will　be　more　just　than　those　of　to…day。　The　decisive
ideal　conceptions　will　be　influenced　not　exclusively　but
essentially　by　distributive　justice。　Institutions　which　govern
whole　groups　of　human　beings　and　the　entire　distribution　of
wealth　and　incomes　necessarily　call　forth　a　judgment　upon　their
total　effects。　Inasmuch；　indeed；　as　single　institutions　concern
only　single　men　and　single　phases　of　life；　the　justice　required
will　only　be　a　partial　one。　Naturally　this　is　always　easy　to
attain。　A　just　assessment　of　taxes；　a　just　distribution　of　the
burdens　for　the　improvement　of　highways；　of　the　duty　of　military
service；　a　just　gradation　of　wages　are　much　easier　to　attain　than
a　just　distribution　of　the　total　incomes　and　wealth。　But　an
endeavor　towards　these　ends　will　never　cease；　all　partially　just
regulations　have　significance　only　in　a　system　of　the　just
distribution　of　the　total。　And　with　this　we　finally　come　to　the
question　what　can　be　and　what　should　the　State　do　in　this　matter？
　　　　In　our　view　it　will　obviously　not　be　a　body　confined　to　the
extension　of　justice　in　criminal　law；　in　the　jurisdiction　upon
contracts　and　further；　perhaps；　in　the　assessment　of　taxes；　but
ignoring　the　just　distribution　of　goods。　What　sense　is　there　in
warming　up　in　the　legislatures　over　the　hundredth　part　of　a　cent；
which　a　quart　of　beer　or　a　yard　of　cloth　is　raised　in　price　for
the　poor　man；　when　one　takes　the　standpoint　on　principle；　that
his　wages　are　to　be　regarded　as　something　indifferent　and　remote
from　all　human　intervention。　Our　modern　civilized　commonwealth
indeed　cannot　remove　every　injustice；　because　primarily　it
operates　and　has　to　operate　by　means　of　law。　But　it　should　not
therefore　be　indifferent　to　the　moral　sentiments　of　men　who　ask
for　justice　in　distributing　wealth　and　incomes　for　the　grand
total　of　human　society。　The　State　is　the　centre　and　the　heart　in
which　all　institutions　empty　and　unite。　It　also　has　a　strong
direct　influence　on　the　distribution　of　incomes　and　wealth　as　the
greatest　employer　of　labor；　the　greatest　property　holder；　or　the
administrator　of　the　greatest　undertakings。　Above　all　it
exercises　as　legislator　and　administrator　the　greatest　indirect
influence　on　law　and　custom；　on　all　social　institutions；　and　this
is　the　decisive　point。
　　　　The　right　man　in　the　right　place；　the　great　statesman　and
reformer；　the　far…seeing　party　chief　and　legislator　can　here
accomplish　extraordinary　things；　not　directly；　not　immediately；
but　through　a　wise　and　just　transformation　of　the　economic
institutions　they　can　greatly　influence　the　administration　of
incomes　and　property。　Of　course；　the　theory　which　sees　only
natural　processes　in　all　economic　life　admits　this　as　little　as
those　who　from　the　standpoint　of　certain　class　interests；　from
conviction　of　principle；　or　even　from　mere　shortsightedness
constantly　recur　to　the　impotency　of　the　State。　Statesmen　of　a
lower　order　also　talk　with　eunuchs'　voices　of　the　inability　of
the　State　to　interfere　anywhere；　they　mistake　their　own　impotency
for　that　of　the　State。　All　these　adverse　opinions　forget　that　the
State　is　and　must　be　the　leading　intelligence；　the　responsible
centre　of　public　sentiment；　the　acme　of　existing　moral　and
intellectual　powers；　and　therefore　can　attain　great　results　in
this　direction。
　　　　We　do　not　demand　that　any　leading　personalities；　like　a　human
omnipotence；　should　control；　compare；　examine　and　estimate　the
qualities　and　achievements　of　millions；　and　accordingly
distribute　incomes　justly。　This　is　a　conception　of　folly　which
reasonable　socialists　now　abandon。　The　State　can　at　all　times
chiefly　influence　a　juster　distribution　of　income　by　means　of
improved　social　institutions。　Only　in　this　way　is　it　guaranteed
against　having　its　best　intentions　destroyed　by　a　thousandfold
formal　injustice。　The　total　of　economic　institutions　will　always
be　more　important　than　the　insight　and　intention　of　those　who　for
the　time　being　govern　in　the　central　administration；　be　they　the
greatest　of　men。　Their　wisdom　and　justice　can　promote　and　reform
the　institutions；　but　cannot　take　their　place。　They　will　prove
themselves　true　benefactors　of　humanity　only　by　fixing　the　net
result　of　their　labors　in　lasting　institutions；　in　increasing　for
posterity　the　great　capital　of　traditional　justice　by　reforms；
and　this　will　secure　immortality　to　their　genius　and　their　will。
　　　　We　are　at　the　end　of　our　inquiry。　What　is　the　result？　It　is
the　fact　that　the　conception　of　justice　grows　out　of　necessary
processes　in　our　soul　and　necessarily　influences　economic　life。
The　idea　of　justice　is；　like　other　moral　ideas；　not　imparted　to
men　by　some　revelation；　and　just　as　little　is　it　an　arbitrary
invention；　it　is　the　necessary　product　of　our　moral　intuition　and
our　logical　thinking；　and　in　so　far　it　is　an　eternal　truth；
manifesting　itself　ever　new　yet　ever　similar　metamorphoses。　In
many　it　works　only　as　a　vague　feeling。　In　the　course　of　history
it　develops；　for　the　majority；　into　clear　conceptions；　standards
and　conclusions。　According　to　the　laws　of　his　thought　man　must
unify　the　manifold　and　then　subject　it　to　uniform　standards。　The
supposition　of　moral　communities　in　society　creates　the
conception　of　an　earthly　justice；　the　supposition　of　the　unity　of
all　things；　that　of　divine　justice。　It　is　the　same　chain　of
judgments　and　conclusions　which；　dissatisfied　with　the
imperfections　of　earthly　things；　transfers　the　last　compensation
into　a　higher　and　better　world。　The　idea　of　justice　is　thus
connected　with　the　highest　and　best　that　we　think；　imagine　and
believe。
　　　　But　as　this　highest　and　last　never　reveals　itself　to　mankind
in　its　full　splendor；　as　we　eternally　seek　it；　eternally　battle
for　it；　and　though　ever　progressing；　never　reach　it；　so　the　idea
of　justice　has　no　resting；　determined　existence　on　earth。　As　no
penal　law；　no　judge　is　absolutely　just；　so　no　established
distribution　of　property　and　incomes　is　altogether　just。　But
every　consecutive　epoch　of　mankind　has　won　a　higher　measure　of
justice　in　this　field。　In　custom；　law　and　existing　institutions
which　rule　economic　life　we　have　the　outcome　of　all　the　struggles
for　justice　which　hi